Professor  J.   Henry  Sender 


THE 


WORKSHOP    COMPANION. 


A  COLLECTION  OP 


USEFUL  AND  RELIABLE  RECIPES,  RULES,  PROCESSES, 
METHODS,  WRINKLES,  AND  PRACTICAL  HINTS 


For  the  Household  and  the  Shop. 


NEW   YORK: 
THE    INDUSTEIAJL  PUBLICATION  COMPANY. 

1887. 
Copyright  secured  according  to  Act  of  Congress.  1879. 


IN  MEMORIAM 
v  irA  <»  Ss«v   ^  -    V\(2x^-v  o*\ 


PREFACE. 


The  following  pages  have  been  prepared  with  very  great 
care,  the  chief  aim  being  to  give  none  but  recipes  which 
will  not  disappoint  those  who  attempt  to  use  them.  Sev- 
eral of  the  recipes  here  given  are  original,  the  formulae 
having  been  worked  out  or  improved  by  the  author  after 
much  labor  and  experiment.  In  searching  for  really  good 
formulae,  we  have  been  astonished  at  the  errors  which 
have  crept  into  many  of  our  standard  books  of  recipes. 
For  example,  in  one  case  the  two  separate  operations  of  a 
well-known  process  for  staining  wood  are  given  as  distinct, 
and,  of  course  useless  recipes !  In  a  seemingly  favorite  re- 
cipe for  a  washing  fluid,  the  reader  is  directed  to  add  vine- 
gar to  the  ammonia  employed,  thus  entirely  neutralizing  it. 
In  the  same  way  we  find  a  recipe  for  transferring  printed 
engravings  to  wood,  in  which  the  alkali  (potash)  is  neutral- 
ized with  vitriol !  We  suppose  that  in  the  last  case,  the 
author  of  this  recipe  thought  that  two  strong  liquids  must 
be  better  than  one,  forgetting  or  not  knowing  the  fact  that 
one  destroys  the  effect  of  the  other.  A  very  slight  knowl- 
edge of  technological  science  would  have  enabled  the  com- 
pilers of  these  books  to  avoid  such  blunders.  In  addition 
to  these  defects,  however,  most  of  our  large  books  of  re- 
cipes contain  so  much  that  is  entirely  useless  to  the 
practical  man,  and  so  many  mere  repetitions  of  the  same 
recipe  in  different  language  and  terms,  that  their  cost  is 
greatly  increased  while  their  value  instead  of  being  en- 
hanced, is  actually  lessened.  We  have,  therefore,  en- 
deavored to  combine  in  the  following  pages  all  that  is 
really  of  practical  value  to  the  professional  or  amateur 
mechanic,  and  at  the  same  time  by  giving  only  one  or  two 


TV  PKEFACE. 

of  the  best  recipes  under  each  head,  we  have  nee  only  sim- 
plified the  work,  but  we  have  brought  it  to  such  a  size  and 
price  that  every  one  can  afford  to  buy  it. 

The  subjects  treated  of  in  this  work  are  arrarged  alpha- 
betically, so  as  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  constant  reference 
to  the  index.  A  few  words  in  regard  to  the  method  pursued 
in  arranging  the  matter  may,  however,  not  be  out  of  place. 
As  we  believe  that  the  greatest  advantage  will  be  derived 
from  bringing  together  at  one  place  not  only  the  special 
instructions  in  regard  to  particular  processes,  but  the 
general  information  relating  to  the  materials,  etc.,  em- 
ployed, we  have  in  most  cases  collected  all  such  matter 
together  under  one  head.  Thus,  under  the  head  of  "  Steel " 
will  be  found  not  only  a  description  of  the  different  kinds 
of  steel,  but  directions  for  forging,  tempering,  etc.,  but  as 
most  persons  who  consult  this  book  would  most  likely  look 
under  the  head  "  Tempering  "  for  information  on  that  par- 
ticular subject,  we  have  entered  the  word  "Tempering" 
and  under  it  give  a  cross-reference  to  "  Steel."  This  is  the 
reason  why  we  have  introduced  so  many  cross  references, 
every  one  of  which  was  put  in  after  the  book  was  written, 
so  that  the  reader'will  not  be  disappointed  when  he  turns 
to  the  heading  to  which  he  is  directed.  Many  of  our  read- 
ers, doubtless,  know  that  in  too  many  volumes  of  this  kind, 
cross  references  are  inserted  merely  for  the  purpose,  of 
swelling  the  apparent  amount  of  information  contained  in 
the  volume,  and  very  often  when  the  reader  turns  to  the 
heading  to  which  he  is  directed,  he  finds  that  the  subject 
which  he  is  looking  for  has  been  omitted.  In  the  present 
case,  the  utmost  care  has  been  taken  to  prevent  disappoint- 
ment of  every  kind,  and  whenever  information  is  promised 
we  have  endeavored  to  give  it  fully,  accurately,  and  in  the 
simplest  possible  language. 

tl .   Jr . 

New  York,  Nov.  1879. 


THE 

WORKSHOP   COMPANION. 


Abyssinian  Gold. 

This  compound  was  so  called  because  it  was  brought  out 
in  England  during  the  recent  war  with  Abyssinia.  It  consists 
of  copper,  90-74  ;  zinc,  8 -33.  This  alloy,  if  of  good  materials 
and  not  heated  too  highly,  has  a  fine  yellow  color,  resembling 
gold,  and  does  not  tarnish  easily. 

Accidents. 

As  those  who  are  engaged  in  mechanical  pursuits  are  pecu- 
liarly liable  to  accidents,  we  have  introduced  under  the  proper 
heads  (Burns,  Eye,  Fires,  Poisons)  such  brief  suggestions  as 
we  thought  might  prove  valuable  to  our  readers.  For  more 
minute  directions  in  regard  to  drowning,  severe  cuts,  gunshot 
wounds,  sprains,  dislocations,  etc. ,  we  must  refer  the  reader 
to  some  one  of  the  numerous  treatises  which  have  been  pub- 
lished on  this  subject*.  The  following  general  rules  will  be 
found  useful  in  all  cases  : 

General  Rtdes.  1.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  in  all  cases 
is  to  send  for  a  physician.  While  the  messenger  is  gone, 
endeavor  to  make  the  patient  as  comfortable  as  possible,  and 
save  him  from  all  exertion,  remembering  that  he  needs  all  his 
strength.  2.  If  there  be  any  severe  bleeding,  stanch  the 
blood  by  means  of  compresses  applied  to  the  veins  or  arteries, 
as  the  case  may  be.  3.  If  the  patient  be  insensible,  place  him 
on  the  ground  or  floor,  lying  rather  over  to  or  directly  on  one 
side,  and  with  the  head  slightly  raised.  Remove  necktie, 
collar,  etc. ,  and  unbutton  or  split  open  any  clothing  pressing 

*Oue  of  the  best  is  that  issued  by  the  publishers  of  this  volume.  It 
is  entitled  "  Wlwt  to  Do  and.  How  to  Po  it  in  Case  of  Accident."  Price 
§9  cents, 


10  TuE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

tightly  upon  the  neck,  chest,  or  abdomen.  4.  As  a  restora- 
tive, sprinkle  the  face  with  cold  water,  and  then  wipe  it  dry. 
Some  cold  water  may  be  given  to  drink,  if  the  power  of  swal- 
lowing be  present,  but  do  not  pour  stimulants  down  the 
throat,  unless  there  be  clear  evidence  that  they  are  needed. 
5.  Do  not  move  the  patient,  unless  to  get  him  to  a  place  of 
shelter,  and  when  he  has  reached  it,  make  him  lie  down  and 
seek  quiet.  6.  Allow  no  useless  talking,  either  to  the  patient, 
or  in  his  presence.  7.  Cause  the  bystanders  to  move  back 
and  leave  a  clear  space  of  at  least  ten  feet  in  every  direction 
around  the  patient.  One  of  the  best  restoratives  is  fresh  air, 
and  a  crowd  cuts  this  off  completely. 

Stimulants  should  be  avoided,  except  in  cases  urgently  de- 
manding their  administration,  but  they  are  agents  of  much 
value  in  the  treatment  of  that  condition  of  collapse  and  faint- 
ness  which  very  commonly  occurs  after  some  physical  injur- 
ies. The  symptoms  may  be  briefly  sketched  :  The  face  is 
pale  and  bedewed  with  cold  or  clammy  perspiration  ;  the 
surface  of  the  body  generally  cold  ;  the  pulse  flickering,  per- 
haps hardly  perceptible  ;  the  patient  complains  of  the  feeling 
of  faintness,  and  may  have  nausea,  or  even  actual  sickness  ; 
the  breathing  is  sighing  and  irregular,  and  for  a  time  there 
may  be  actual  insensibility.  Now  under  such  conditions 
there  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  propriety  of  inducing  re- 
action by  the  administration  of  stimulants. 

Coffee  given  hot  and  strong,  and  in  small  quantities,  is  a 
safe  and  useful  remedy. 

Spirituous  liquors  are  more  potent  in  their  effects,  and  the 
good  effect  is  produced  more  speedily.  Brandy  is  the  best 
spirit,  given  in  more  or  less  diluted  form  ;  failing  this,  rum 
or  wine  may  be  given.  If  the  spirits  can  be  obtained  only 
from  some  low  grog  shop,  then  whiskey  is  to  be  preferred  to 
brandy  or  wine,  as  being  less  liable  to  adulteration.  In  ad- 
ministering these  articles  the  best  practical  rule  is  to  givo  u 
small  quantity  at  first  and  watch  the  effect ;  if  the  surface 
becomes  warmer,  the  breathing  deeper  and  more  regular,  and 
the  pulse  at  the  wrist  more  perceptible,  then  there  can  be  no 
question  as  to  the  advantage  of  giving  even  a  little  more  ;  but 
if  these  signs  of  improvement  are  wanting— if  there  be  in- 
crease of  insensibility,  and  deepening  of  color  about  the  face, 
with  access  of  heat  of  skin— withhold  alcohol  entirely  ;  it  will 
but  add  to  the  mischief. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  11 

Alabaster. 

This  material  is  so  common  and  yields  such  beautiful  re- 
sults when  worked,  that  a  few  hints  in  regard  to  working  and 
mending  it  may  not  be  out  of  place. 

There  are  two  distinct  chemical  compounds  to  which  the 
name  of  alabaster  has  been  applied,  the  most  common  being 
the  sulphate  of  lime,  while  that  known  as  oriental  alabaster  is 
a  stalagmitic  carbonate  of  lime,  compact  or  fibrous,  generally 
white,  but  of  all  colors  from  white  to  brown,  and  sometimes 
veined  with  colored  zones  ;  it  is  of  the  same  hardness  as 
marble,  is  used  for  similar  purposes,  and  is  wrought  by  the 
same  means. 

Of  the  common  alabaster  (sulphate  of  lime)  there  are  several 
varieties.  The  finest  white  alabaster  is  obtained  from  Italy, 
but  very  excellent  specimens  are  found  near  Derby  in  Eng- 
land. (They  must  not,  however,  be  confounded  with  Derby- 
shire or  fluoi-  spar  which  is  a  calcic  fluoride. )  The  variegated 
kinds  are  turned  into  pillars,  vases  and  various  ornamental 
forms,  the  tools  usod  being  very  simple,  namely,  points  for 
roughing  out,  flat  chisels  for  smoothing,  and  one  or  two 
common  firmer  chisels,  ground  convex  and  concave  for 
curved  lines.  After  being  brought  to  the  proper  shape,  the 
work  is  polished  as  follows  :  Take  a  piece  of  very  fine,  soft 
sandstone,  and  apply  it  with  water  to  the  work  while  in  quick 
motion,  moving  the  stone  all  over  until  there  is  worked  up  a 
body  of  mud.  Then  take  a  clean  rag  and  work  this  sludge 
well  on  the  alabaster,  after  which  wash  the  work  clean. 
Apply  a  rag  charged  with  putty  powder  and  water  until  there 
is  a  gloss  upon  the  work,  after  which  apply  another  rag 
charged  with  a  mixture  of  putty  powder,  soap  and  water  for 
a  short  time,  and  wipe  the  alabaster  dry.  If  carefully  per- 
formed the  polish  will  be  very  beautiful. 

Alabaster  readily  absorbs  grease  and  dirt,  and  as  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  clean,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  it  from 
coming  in  contact  with  anything  that  will  stain  it.  Dust, 
etc.,  may  be  removed  by  means  of  pure  water  to  which  a  little 
ammonia  has  been  added.  Grease  and  similar  stains  may  be 
removed  by  allowing  the  alabaster  to  lie  for  some  time  in 
contact  with  a  paste  of  powdered  chalk  moistened  with  a  solu- 
tion of  potash  or  soda  Soap  should  never  be  used  for  clean- 
ing alabaster,  as  it  leaves  a  greasy  stain,  Ualike  marble, 


12  THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION. 

alabaster  is  not  affected  by  common  acids,  and  therefor®  they 
may  be  used  for  extracting  stains  of  common  ink,  etc. 

The  proper  cement  for  uniting  pieces  of  alabaster  is  plaster 
of  paris  made  into  a  cream  with  water  as  for  making  ordinary 
casts.  The  surfaces  to  be  joined  must  be  moistened  with 
water. 

Alcohol. 

This  familiar  liquid  requires  no  description,  but  it  may  not 
be  out  of  place  to  caution  our  readers  that  failure  in  the  mak- 
ing of  varnishes,  etc. ,  very  often  arises  from  the  use  of  alcohol 
which  by  standing  has  lost  its  strength.  Ordinary  alcohol  is 
a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  water,  and  as  the  alcohol  evaporates 
more  readily  than  the  water,  when  the  mixture  is  allowed  to 
stand  for  any  length  of  time  it  becomes  reduced  in  strength, 
that  is  to  say  the  proportion  of  alcohol  becomes  less  and  that 
of  the  water  more. 

Alloys. 

In  making  alloys,  especially  where  the  component  metals 
vary  greatly  in  fusibility  and  volatility,  the  following  rules 
must  be  observed  : 

1.  Melt  the  least  fusible,  oxidable  and  volatile  first,  and 
then  add  the  others  heated  to  their  point  of  fusion  or  near  it. 
Thus  if  we  desire  to  make  an  alloy  of  exactly  one  part  copper 
and  three  zinc,  it  will  be  impossible  to  do  so  by  putting  these 
proportions   of  the  metals  in  a  crucible  and  exposing  tho 
whole  to  heat.     Much  of  the  zinc  would  fly  off  in  vapor  be- 
fore the  copper  was  melted.      First  melt  the  copper  and  add 
the  zinc  which  has  been  melted  in  another  crucible.     Tho. 
zinc  should  be  in  excess,  as  some  of  it  will  be  lost  anyway, 

2.  Some  alloys,  as  copper  and  zinc,  copper  and  arsenic, 
may  be  formed  by  exposing  heated  plates  of  the  least  fusiblo 
metal  to  the  vapor  of  the  other.      In  making  brass  in  tho 
large  way,  thin  plates  of  copper  are  dissolved  as  it  were  in 
melted  zinc  until  the  proper  proportions  have  been  obtained. 

3.  The  surface  of  all  oxidable  metals  should  be  covered 
with  some  protecting  agent,  as  tallow  for  very  fusible  ones  ; 
resin  for  lead  and  tin  ;  charcoal  for  zinc,  copper,  etc. 

4.  Stir  the  metal  before  casting,   and,  if  possible,  when 
casting,  with  a  whitewood  stick  ;  this  is  much  better  for  the 
purpose  than  an  iron  rod, 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  13 

5.  If  possible,  add  a  small  portion  of  old  alloy  to  the  new 
one.  If  the  alloy  is  required  to  make  sharp  castings,  and 
strength  is  not  a  very  great  object,  the  proportion  of  old  alloy 
to  the  new  should  be  increased.  In  all  cases  a  new  or 
thoroughly  well  cleaned  crucible  should  be  used. 

Albata. — Known  also  as  "British  plate,"  "electrum,"  etc. 
It  is  a  favorite  material  for  making  articles  that  are  to  be 
electrotyped.  The  best  proportions  of  the  ingredients  are 
Copper,  20  ;.  nickel,  4  ;  zinc,  16. 

Alloy  for  filling  holes  in  Iron. — Lead,  9  ;  antimony,  2  ',  bis- 
muth, 1.  This  alloy  is  sometimes  called  "mock  iron;"  it 
expands  in  cooling,  so  that  when  a  hole  is  filled  with  the 
melted  alloy,  the  plug  is  not  loose  when  it  is  cold. 

Alloy  for  Uniting  Iron,  Steel  and  Brass. — The  following  com- 
position may  be  cast  on  steel  or  iron,  and  will  adhere  firmly 
thereto.  Its  rate  of  expansion  is  nearer  that  of  iron  and  steel 
than  any  similar  compound.  When  cast  around  iron  or  steel 
therefore,  it  closes  firmly  around  them  and  does  not  become 
loose  by  alternate  expansion  and  contraction.  It  consists  of 
tin,  3  ;  copper,  39£  ;  zinc,  7J.  Since  the  last  metal  is  partly 
converted  into  vapor  at  a  high  temperature,  the  above  pro- 
portion may  be  slightly  increased. 

Aluminium  Bronze. — Copper,  90  ;  aluminium,  10.  Resem- 
bles gold  in  color,  and  is  very  strong  and  durable. 

Aluminium  Silver. — Copper,  70  ;  nickel,  23  ;  aluminium,  7. 
Has  a  beautiful  color  and  takes  a  high  polish. 

Amalgam  for  Silvering  the  insides  of  Globes,  etc. — 1.  Lead, 
2  oz. ;  tin,  2  oz. ;  bismuth,  2  oz. ;  mercury,  4  oz.  Melt  the  first 
three  and  add  the  mercury.  The  glass  being  well  cleaned, 
is  carefully  warmed  and  the  melted  amalgam  is  poured  in  and 
the  vessel  turned  round  until  all  parts  are  coated.  At  a  cer- 
tain temperature  this  amalgam  adheres  readily  to  glass. 

2.  Bismuth,  8  ;  lead,  5  ;  tin,  3  ;  mercury,  8.  Use  as  directed 
for  No.  1. 

Amalgam  for  Electrical  Machines.— 1.  Tin,  1  oz.  ;  zinc,  1  oz.  ; 
mercury,  2  oz. 

2.  BceUger's  Amalgam.—  Zinc,  2  oz.  ;  mercury,  1  oz.  At  a 
certain  temperature  (easily  found  by  experiment)  it  powders 
readily,  and  should  be  kept  in  a  tightly  corked  bottle.  Said 
to  be  very  good, 

Cock  Metal. — Copper,  10  ;  lead,  4,  Used  for  casting  cocks. 
Amalgam, — Dissolve  3  oz.  sulphate  of  copper  i» 


U  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION, 

water  and  add  1  oz.  sulphuric  acid.  Hang  clean  iron  scraps  ill 
the  solution  until  the  copper  has  fallen  down  in  fine  powder. 
"Wash  this  powder,  moisten  it  with  a  solution  of  protonitrato 
of  mercury,  and  then  to  each  ounce  of  the  powder  add  2|  oz. 
mercury,  and  rub  up  in  a  mortar.  When  thoroughly  mixed, 
>vash  well  with  hot  water.  This  ainalgam  is  easily  moulded, 
(adheres  readily  to  glass,  porcelain  and  some  metkls,  takes  o- 
line  polish,  and  in  10  to  12  hours  it  becomes  so  hard  that  it 
\vill  scratch  gold  or  tin.  "When  heated  it  softens,  and  may  bo 
easily  moulded,  As  it  docs  not  contract  on  cooling,  it  lias 
l>eeu  Used  by  dentists  for  filling  teeth,  and  it  might  be  used 
to  good  advantage  for  inlaying  lines  in  dark  wood. 

Pi'^tonitrate  of  mercury  is  easily  made  by  dissolving 
meroviry  in  nitric  acid. 

Babbitt's  Anti- Attrition  Metal  for  lining  Boxes. — First  melt 
four  pounds  of  copper,  and,  when  melted,  add,  by  degrees, 
twelve  pounds  best  quality  Banca  tin  ;  then  add  eight  pounds 
regulus  of  antimony,  and  then  twelve  pounds  more  of  tin, 
while  the  composition  is  in  a  melted  state.  After  the  copper 
is  melted  and  four  or  five  pounds  of  tin  have  been  added, 
the  heat  should  be  lowered  to  a  dull  red  heat,  in  order  to 
prevent  oxidation  ;  then  add  the  remainder  of  the  metal. 
In  melting  the  composition  it  is  better  to  keep  a  small 
quantity  of  powdered  charcoal  in  the  pot,  on  the  surface  of 
the  metal. 

The  above  composition  is  made  in  the  first  place,  and  is 
called  hardening  ;  for  lining  work  take  one  pound  of  the 
hardening  and  melt  with  two  pounds  Banca  tin,  which  pro- 
duces the  very  best  lining  metal.  So  that  the  proportions 
for  lining  metal  are  four  pounds  copper,  eight  regulus  of  anti- 
mony and  ninety-six  pounds  tin. 

The  object  in  first  preparing  the  hardening  is  economy,  for 
when  the  whole  is  melted  together  there  is  a  great  waste  of 
metal,  as  the  hardening  is  melted  at  a  much  less  degree  of 
lieat  than  the  copper  and  antimony  separately. 

Belgian  Antifriction  Metals. — For  work  exposed  to  great 
heat :  Copper,  17  ;  zinc,  1 ;  tin,  0'5  ;  lead,  0'25. 

For  parts  liable  to  much  concussion  :  Copper,  20  ;  zinc,  G  ; 
tin,  1. 

For  parts  exposed  to  much  friction  :  Copper,  20  ;  tin,  4  ; 
Antimony,  0*5  ;  lead,  0'25. 

Cheap  Antifriction  Metal. — Equal  parts  of  zinc  and  lead 


THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION.  15 

melted  together,  and  well  stirred  at  the  time  of  pouring  into 
the  box  or  bearing. 

Fusible  Metals. — These  are  chiefly  used  as  a  means  of  amuse- 
ment, spoons  formed  of  them  melting  readily  in  hot  tea  or 
coffee.  They  have  also  been  used  to  make  plugs  for  steam 
boilers,  the  intention  being  that  they  should  melt  and  allow 
the  steam  to  escape  when  the  pressure  became  too  great.  No. 
4  has  been  used  for  making  casts  of  coins  and  medals,  and  the 
beautiful  French  cliche  moulds  were  made  of  it. 

1.  Newton's  fusible  metal :  Bismuth,  8  ;  lead,  5  ;  tin,  3. 
Melts  with  the  heat  of  boiling  water. 

2.  Onion's  metal :   Lead,  3  ;  tin,  2  ;  bismuth,  5.     Melts  at 
11)7  degrees,  Fahrenheit. 

3.  Wood's  fusible  metal :    Bismuth,  15  ;  lead,  8  ;  tin,  4 ; 
cadmium,  3.     Melts  between  150  and  160  deg.  Fahr. 

4.  Cliche  metal :  Bismuth,  8  ;  tin,  4  ;  lead,  5  ;  antimony,  1. 
The  metals  should  be  repeatedly  melted  together  and  poured 
ir  to  drops  or  granulated,  until  they  are  well  mixed. 

Pe aiter. — Tin,  4  ;  lead  1.  Old  articles  of  pewter  form 
therefore,  a  very  fine  metal  for  solder. 

Queen's  Metal. — Tin,  100  ;  antimony,  8  ;  copper,  4 ;  bis- 
muth, 1.  Resembles  silver  in  appearance. 

Speculum  Metal. — Copper,  32  ;  tin,  15  ;  arsenic,  2.  First 
molt  the  copper,  and  then  add  the  tin  which  should  have 
been  melted  in  a  separate  crucible.  Mix  thoroughly  and  add 
the  arsenic. 

Type  Metal. — Lead,  44  ;  antimony  8  ;  tin,  1. 

Amber. 

Amber  is  principally  obtained  from  the  shores  of  the  Baltic, 
but  it  is  also  found  in  other  parts  of  Europe.  The  most  es- 
teemed is  the  opaque  variety,  resembling  the  color  of  a  lemon, 
and  sometimes  called  fat  amber  ;  the  transparent  pieces  are 
very  brittle  and  vitreous.  The  German  pipe  makers,  by 
whom  it  is  principally  used,  employ  thin  scraping  tools,  and 
they  burn  a  small  lamp  or  place  a  little  pan  of  burning  char- 
coal beneath  the  amber  to  warm  it  slightly  whilst  it  runs  in 
the  lathe.  This  prevents  it  from  chipping  out,  but  if  it  is  too 
highly  heated  by  friction  it  is  apt  to  fly  to  pieces. 

The  finer  specimens  of  amber,  which  are  sometimes  formed 
into  gems  and  ornaments,  are  ground  on  lead  plates  made  to 
revolve  in  the  lathe,  any  of  the  usual  abrasive  substances 


16  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

(sand  or  emery)  being  used.  The  facets  are  then  finished  by 
means  of  a  whetstone,  and  polished  with  chalk  mixed  with 
water  or  vegetable  oil.  The  final  finish  is  given  by  means  of 
flannel.  During  the  polishing  process  the  amber  becomes 
very  warm  and  highly  electric,  and  if  this  heating  goes  too 
far  it  will  fly  in.  pieces.  The  workmen,  therefore,  cool  it  off 
every  now  and  theru 

Amber,  to  Unite  Broken  Pieces. — Coat  with  linseed  oil  the 
surfaces  that  are  to*  be  joined  ;  hold  the  oiled  parts  carefully 
over  a  charccal  fire,  a  few  hot  cinders  or  a  gaslight,  being 
careful  to  cover  up  all  the  rest  of  the  object  loosely  with 
paper.  "When  the  oiled  parts  have  begun  to  feel  the  heat  so 
as  to  be  sticky,  press  and  clamp  them  together  and  keep  them 
so  until  nearly  cold.  Only  that  part  where  the  edges  are  to 
be  united  must  be  warmed,  and  even  that  with  care  lest  the 
form  or  polish  of  the  other  parts  should  be  disturbed  ;  the 
part  where  the  joint  occurs  generally  requires  to  be  repolished. 

Imitation  Amber. — Of  late,  an  imitation  of  amber,  which 
cannot  be  distinguished  frpin  the  genuine  article  by  inspec- 
tion, has  made  its  appearance  on  the  market.  It  contains 
copal,  camphor,  turpentine,  and  other  ingredients,  becomes 
electric  by  friction,  and  is  used  for  manufacturing  mouth- 
pieces for  pipes,  cigar-holders,  ornaments,  etc.  The  com- 
position may  be  distinguished  from  genuire  amber  by  its 
lower  melting  point,  as  it  quickly  softens  and  melts  when  laid 
on  a  hot  plate,  while  amber  requires  a  comparatively  high 
heat ;  and  further  by  the  action  of  ether,  which  softens  the 
imitation  until  it  may  be  scraped  away  with  the  finger-nail, 
while  true  amber  is  absolutely  insoluble  in  cold  ether. 

Annealing  and  Hardening. 

For  the  best  methods  of  annealing,  hardening  and  temper- 
ing steel,  see  article  STEEL  in  this  volume.  Several  valuable 
facts  in  regard  to  glass  are  alsc  given  under  GLASS. 

Copper,  brass,  German  silver  and  similar  metals  are  hard- 
ened by  hammering,  rolling  or  wire  drawing,  and  are  softened 
by  being  heated  red  hot  and  plunged  in  water.  Copper,  by 
being  alloyed  with  tin,  may  be  made  so  hard  that  cutting  in- 
struments may  be  made  of  it.  This  is  the  old  process  of 
hardening  copper,  which  is  so  often  claimed  to  be  one  of  the 
lost  arts,  and  which  would  be  very  useful  if  we  did  not 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  17 

in  steel  a  material  which  is  far  less  costly  and  far  better  fitted 
for  the  making  of  edge  tools. 

Antiseptic  Preparations. 

Specimens  of  natural  history  intended  for  subsequent  ex- 
amination and  dissection  are  best  preserved  in  alcohol,  but  as 
this  is  expensive,  a  saturated  solution  of  100  parts  of  alum 
and  2  parts  of  saltpetre  may  be  used  with  good  effect.  For 
preserving  stuffed  specimens  the  following  are  generally 
used  : 

Arsenical  Soap. — This  is  the  most  powerful  preservative  in 
use.  It  is  a  strong  poison,  but  is  invaluable  for  preserving 
skins  of  birds  and  beasts  that  are  to  be  stuffed.  It  is  made 
thus  :  Powdered  arsenic,  2  oz.  ;  camphor,  5  oz.  ;  white  soap, 
2  oz.  ;  salt  of  tartar  (sub-carbonate  of  potash),  6  drachms  ; 
powdered  lime,  2  drachms.  Cut  the  soap  in  very  thin  slices 
and  heat  gently  with  a  small  quantity  of  water,  stirring  all 
the  time  with  a  stick.  When  thoroughly  melted  add  the  salt 
of  tartar  and  the  lime.  When  these  are  well  mixed  together 
add  the  arsenic,  which  must  be  carefully  incorporated  with 
the  other  ingredients.  Take  the  mixture  off  the  tire,  and  while 
cooling  add  the  camphor,  previously  reduced  to  powder  by 
rubbing  it  with  a  little  alcohol.  When  finished  the  soap 
should  be  of  the  consistence  of  thick  cream  and  should  be 
kept  in  a  tightly  stopped  bottle. 

Arsenical  Preservative  Powder. — This  is  dusted  over  moist 
skins  and  flesh,  and  preserves  almost  any  animal  matter  from 
putrefaction.  It  is  thus  made  :  Arsenic,  4  oz.  ;  burnt  alum, 
4  oz.  ;  tanner's  bark,  8  oz  ;.  mix  and  grind  together  to  a  very 
fine  powder. 

Beeswax. 

Beeswax  is  obtained  by  washing  and  melting  the  honey- 
comb. The  product  is  yellow  and  is  freed  from  its  impurities, 
and  bleached  by  melting  it  with  hot  water  or  steam,  in  a 
tinned  copper  or  wooden  vessel,  letting  it  settle,  running  it 
off  into  an  oblong  trough  with  a  line  of  holes  in  its  bottom, 
so  as  to  distribute  it  upon  horizontal  wooden  cylinders,  mado 
to  revolve,  half  immersed  in  cold  water,  and  then  exposing 
the  thin  ribbons  or  films  thus  obtained,  to  the  blanching 
action  of  air,  light,  and  moisture.  For  this  purpose  the  rib- 
bons are  laid  upon  long  webs  of  canvas  stretched  horizontally 
between  standards,  two  feet  above  the  surface  of  a  sheltered 


13  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

/  ,      •— * 

field,  having  a  free  exposure  to  the  sunbeams.  Hete  they 
are  frequently  turned  over,  then  covered  by  nets  to  prevent 
their  being  blown  away  by  winds,  and  watered  from  time  to 
time,  like  linen  upon  the  grass  field  in  the  old  method  of 
bleaching.  Whenever  the  color  of  the  wax  seems  stationary, 
it  i.s  collected,  re-melted,  and  thrown  again  into  ribbons  upon 
the  wet  cylinder,  in  order  to  expose  new  surfaces  to  the  bleach- 
ing operation.  By  several  repetitions  of  these  processes,  i/ 
the  weather  proves  favorable,  the  wax  becomes  quite  white. 

Black-boards. 

Various  kinds  of  so-called  "  liquid  slating  "  have  been  sold 
for  converting  any  smooth  board  or  wall  into  a  black-board 
for  school  or  other  purposes.  The  following  give  very  good 
results;  No.  1  is  probably  the  best,  but  is  somewhat  expen- 
sive. 

1.  Take  alcohol  (95  per  cent.),  4  pints;  shellac,  8  ounces; 
lamp-black,  12  drachms;  ultramarine  blue,  20  drachms;  pow- 
dered rotten   stone,   4  ounces;  powdered  pumice  stone,  G 
ounces.     First  dissolve  the  shellac  in  the  alcohol,  then  add 
the  other  ingredients,  finely  powdered,  and  shake  well.     To 
apply  the  slating,  have  the  surface  of  the  board  smooth  and 
perfectly  free  from  grease.      Shake  well  the  bottle  containing 
the  preparation,  pour  out  a  small  quantity  only  into  an  old 
tea-cup,  and  apply  it  with  a  new  flat  varnish  brush  as  rapidly 
as  possible.  Keep  the  bottle  well  corked,  and  shake  it  up  every 
time  before  pouring  out  the  liquid. 

2.  Instead  of  alcohol  take  a  solution  of  borax  in  water;  dis- 
solve the  shellac  in  this  and  color  with  lamp-black. 

3.  Dilute  silicate  of  soda  (water-glass)  with  an  equal  bulk 
of  water,  and  add  sufficient  lamp-black  to  color  it.    The  lamp- 
1  >lack  should  be  ground  with  water  and  a  little  of  the  silicate 
before  being  added  to  the  rest  of  the  liquid. 

Brass. 

Next  to  iron,  brass  is  probably  the  most  generally  useful 
metal,  and  as  the  varieties  of  this  alloy  are  almost  infinite,  the 
range  of  purposes  to  which  it  may  be  applied  is  very  great. 
The  color  of  the  alloy  inclines  to  red  when  the  proportion  of 
zinc  is  small,  gradually  changing  to  yellow,  and  ultimately 
white,  when  the  proportion  of  zinc  is  very  large.  The  duc- 
tility and  malleability  of  the  alloy  increase  with  the  quantity 
of  copper.  Ordinary  brass  may  be  hammered,  rolled  into 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  19 

sheets  or  drawn  to  wire  while  cold,  provided  it  is  occasionally 
annealed  by  heating  it'  to  a  very  low  red  heat.  When  worked 
hot  it  crumbles  to  pieces  under  the  hammer  or  between  the 
rolls.  But  the  so-called  yellow  metal,  or  Muntz  metal,  an 
alloy  of  40  parts  of  zinc  and  60  of  copper,  may  be  wrought 
while  red  hot,  rolled  into  sheets  and  forged  into  bolts.  Brass 
is  not  so  readily  oxidized  as  copper,  being  harder,  tougher, 
more  easily  fusible  and  more  fluid  when  molten.  It  solidified 
without  becoming  honey-combed,  and  hence  is  suited  for 
making  all  kinds  of  castings;  while  simply  by  the  addition 
of  from  1  to  2  per  cent,  of  lead,  it  is  capable  of  being  readily 
worked  on  the  lathe,  and  may  then  be  filed  without,  as  ifc 
otherwise  does,  clogging  the  teeth  of  the  file. 

Finishing  Brass. — The  article  having  been  brought  to 
proper  shape  by  means  of  the  lathe,  file,  grindstone  or  other 
means,  the  surface  must  be  rendered  smooth  and  free  from 
lumps,  utters,  or  scratches.  If  finished  in  the  lathe,  emery 
paper  and  oil  may  be  used  to  smooth  the  surface,  the  final 
polish  being  imparted  by  rouge.  In  all  cases  where  brass  or 
other  metals  are  polished  by  means  of  abrasive  materials,  great 
care  must  be  taken  that  all  corners  are  left  sharp  and  well- 
defined,  since  nothing  looks  so  badly  as  a  corner  which  ought 
to  be  square  but  which  is  worn  and  rounded  in  the  process 
of  polishing. 

In  finishing  brass  work  (and  the  same  remark  applies  to 
the  polishing  of  other  materials)  great  care  must  be  taken  to 
avoid  making  any  scratches  which  are  deeper  than  the  other 
marks  left  by  the  material  employed.  Such  scratches  are 
very  difficult  to  remove  by  very  fine  files  or  by  polishing 
powders,  and  therefore,  whenever  the  work  shows  such 
scratches  it  is  necessary  to  go  back  to  the  coarse  file  or  scraper 
and  begin  anew.  (See  articles  on  Polishing  Metals  and  Polish- 
ing Powders.} 

Coloring  and  Varnishing  Brass. — To  prevent  the  everyday 
rusting  of  brass  goods,  the  trade  has  long  resorted  to  means 
for  protecting  the  surface  from  the  action  of  the  atmosphere, 
the  first  plan  of  which  i^  to  force  a  change  to  take  place. 
Thus,  if  brass  is  left  in  damp  sand,  it  acquires  a  beautiful 
brown  color,  which,  when  polished  with  a  dry  brush,  remains 
permanent  and  requires  no  cleaning.  It  is  also  possible  to 
impart  a  green  and  light  coating  of  verdigris  on  the  surface 
of  the  brass  by  means  of  dilute  acids,  allowed  to  dry  spou- 


grt  ME  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

taneously.  'The  antique  appearance  thus  given  is  very  pleas- 
ing, and  more  or  less  permanent.  But  it  is  not  always  pos- 
sible to  wait  for  goods  so  long  as  such  processes  require,  and 
hence  more  speedy  methods  became  necessary,  many  of  which 
had  to  be  further  protected  by  a  coat  of  varnish.  Before 
bronzing,  however,  all  the  requisite  fitting  is  finished,  and  the 
brass  annealed,  pickled  in  old  or  dilute  nitric  acid,  till  the 
scales  can  be  removed  from  the  surface,  scoured  with  sand 
and  water,  and  dried.  Bronzing  is  then  performed  according 
to  the  color  desired;  for  although  the  word  means  a  brown 
color,  being  taken  from  the  Italian  "  bronzino,"  signifying 
burnt  brown,  yet  in  commercial  language  it  includes  all 
colors.  (See  article  on  Bronzing. ) 

Browns  of  all  shades  are  obtained  by  immersion  in  solu- 
tions of  nitrate  or  the  perchloride  of  iron;  the  strength  of 
the  solutions  determining  the  depth  of  the  color.  Violets  are 
produced  by  dipping  in  a  solution  of  chloride  of  antimony. 
Chocolate  is  obtained  by  burning  on  the  surface  of  the  brass 
moist  red  oxide  of  iron,  and  polishing  with  a  very  small 
quantity  of  blacklead. 

Olive-green  results  from  making  the  surface  black  by  means 
of  a  solution  of  iron  and  arsenic  in  muriatic  acid,  the  details 
of  the  process  being  as  follows: 

Make  the  articles  bright,  then  dip  in  aqua  fortis,  which 
must  be  thoroughly  rinsed  off  with  clean  water.  Then  make 
the  following  mixture:  Hydrochloric  acid,  6  Ibs. ;  sulphate  of 
iron,  i  Ib. ;  white  arsenic,  £  Ib.  Be  careful  to  get  all  the  in- 
gredients pure.  Let  the  articles  lie  in  the  mixture  till  black; 
take  out  and  dry  in  hot  sawdust,  polish  with  blacklead,  and 
lacquer  with  green  lacquer  composed  of  one  part  lac  varnish, 
four  of  turmeric,  and  one  of  gamboge. 

A  steel-gray  color  is  deposited  on  brass  from  a  dilute  boil- 
ing solution  of  chloride  of  arsenic;  and  a  blue  by  careful 
treatment  with  strong  hyposulphite  of  soda. 

Black  is  much  used  for  optical  brass  work,  and  is  obtained 
by  coating  the  brass  with  a  solution  of  platinum,  or  with 
chloride  of  gold  mixed  with  nitrate  of  tin.  The  Japanese 
bronze  their  brass  by  boiling  it  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of 
copper,  alum  and  verdigris. 

Success  in  the  art  of  bronzing  greatly  depends  on  circum- 
stances, such  as  the  temperature  of  the  alloy  or  of  the  solu- 
tion, the  proportions  of  the  metals  used  in  forming  the  alloy, 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  21 

and  the  quality  of  the  materials.  The  moment  at  which  to 
withdraw  the  goods,  the  drying  of  them,  and  a  hundred  little 
items  of  care  and  manipulation,  require  attention  which  ex- 
perience alone  can  impart. 

To  avoid  giving  any  artificial  color  to  brass,  and  yet  to  pre- 
serve it  from  becoming  tarnished,  it  is  usual  to  cover  properly 
cleaned  brass  with  a  varnish  called  "  lacquer."  To  prepare 
the  brass  for  this,  the  goods,  after  being  annealed,  pickled, 
scoured  and  washed,  as  already  explained,  are  either  dipped 
for  an  instant  in  pure  commercial  nitrous  acid,  washed  in 
clean  water,  and  dried  in  sawdust,  or  immersed  in  a  mixture 
of  one  part  of  nitric  acid  with  four  of  water,  till  a  white  curd 
covers  the  surface,  at  which  moment  the  goods  are  withdrawn, 
washed  in  clean  water,  and  dried  in  sawdust.  In  the  first 
case  the  brass  will  be  bright;  in  the  latter,  a  dead  flat  which 
is  usually  relieved  by  burnishing  the  prominent  parts.  Tlieri 
the  goods  are  dipped  for  an  instant  in  commercial  nitric  acid, 
and  well  washed  in  water  containing  some  argol  (to  preserve 
the  color  till  lacquered),  and  dried  in  warm  sawdust.  So  pre- 
pared, the  goods  are  conveyed  to  the  lacquer  room,  where 
they  are  heated  on  a  hot  plate  and  varnished. 

The  varnish  used  is  one  of  spirit,  consisting,  in  its  simple 
form,  of  one  ounce  of  shellac  dissolved  in  one  pint  of  alcohol. 
To  this  simple  varnish  are  added  such  coloring  substances  as 
red  sanders,  dragon's-blood,  and  annatto,  for  imparting  rich- 
ness of  color.  To  lower  the  tone  of  color,  turmeric,  gamboge, 
saffron,  Cape  aloes,  and  sandarac  are  used.  The  first  group 
reddens,  the  second  yellows  the  varnish,  while  a  mixture  of 
the  two  gives  a  pleasing  orange.  (See  article  on  Lacquer.) 

To  Whiten  Brass. — Small  articles  of  brass  or  copper  may 
be  whitened  by  boiling  them  in  a  solution  of  f  Ib.  cream  of 
tartar,  2  quarts  of  water,  and  1  Ib.  grain  tin  or  any  pure  tin 
finely  divided.  The  tin  dissolves  in  the  cream  of  tartar  and 
is  again  precipitated  on  the  brass  or  copper. 

Depositing  Brass  by  Electricity. — The  first  step  is  to  t^or« 
oughly  cleanse  the  articles,  either  by  means  of  emery,  or  bv 
laying  them  overnight  in  a  weak  bath  of  sulphuric  acid. 
They  are  then  washed  off  with  water,  a  weak  soda  solution, 
and  then  immersed  as  the  cathode  of  a  bath  consisting  of  2£ 
parts  of  sulphate  of  copper,  20  parts  sulphate  of  zinc,  and  45 
parts  cyanide  of  potassium,  in  300  parts  of  water.  The  anode 
should  be  two  plates  of  zinc  and  copper  of  equal  size.  The 


22  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

color  of  the  resulting  brass  coating  may  be  modified  by 
varying  the  depth  of  immersion  of  one  or  the  other  of  the 
plates.  The  galvanic  current  should  be  a  strong  one,  and 
the  liberation  of  hydrogen  bubbles  on  the  object  to  bo 
brassed  should  be  plentiful.  It  is  important,  however,  to 
note  that  the  objects  should  be  first  coppered  to  insure  a 
strong  attachment  of  the  brass  coating. 

Coating  Brass  with  Copper. — The  following  valuable  process 
for  coating  brass  with  copper,  is  given  by  Dr.  C.  Puscher: 
Dissolve  ten  parts,  by  weight,  of  sulphate  of  copper,  and  five 
of  sal-ammoniac,  in  one  hundred  and  fifty  parts,  by  weight, 
of  water.  Place  the  brass,  well  cleaned  and  free  from  fatty 
matter  on  its  surface,  into  this  mixture  ;  leave  it  in  it  for  a 
minute;  let  the  excess  of  liquid  drain  off  first,  and  heat  the 
metal  next  over  a  charcoal  fire,  until  the  evolution  of  am- 
moniacal  vapors  ceases,  and  the  coppery  film  appears  per- 
fect. Wash  with  cold  water  and  dry.  The  coating  of  cop- 
per adheres  firmly. 

Cleaning  Brass. — Large  articles  of  brass  and  copper  which 
have  become  very  much  soiled  iray  be  cleaned  by  a  mixture 
of  rotten-stone  powder  (or  any  hnarp  polishing  poAvder)  with 
a  strong  solution  of  oxalic  acid.  After  being  thoroughly 
cleaned,  the  metal  should  be  wiped  oft' with  a  cloth  moistened 
with  soda  or  potash,  and  a  very  light  coating  of  oil  should  bo 
applied  to  prevent  the  further  corroding  action  of  the  acid. 

A  more  powerful  cleaning  agent,  because  very  corrosive, 
is  finely  powdered  bichromate  of  potash  mixed  with  twico 
its  bulk  of  strong  sulphuric  acid  and  diluted  (after  standing 
an  hour  or  so)  with  an  equal  bulk  of  water.  This  will  in- 
stantly clean  the  dirtiest  brass,  but  great  care  must  be  taken 
in  handling  the  liquid,  as  it  is  very  corrosive. 

Brass  which  has  been  lacquered  should  never  be  cleaned 
with  polishing  powders  or  corrosive  chemicals.  Wiping 
with  a  soft  cloth  is  sufficient,  and  in  some  cases  washing  with 
weak  soap  and  water  may  be  admissible.  Dry  the  articles 
thoroughly,  taking  care  not  to  scratch  them,  and  if,  after 
this,  they  show  much  sign  of  wear  or  corrosion,  send  them  to 
the  lacquerer  to  be  refinished. 

Brazing  and  Soldering. 

The  term  soldering  is  generally  applied  when  fusible  alloys 
of  lead  and  tin  are  employed  for  uniting  metals.  When  hard 


THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION.  23 

Eleials,  such  as  copper,  brass  or  silver  are  used,  tlie  term 
brazing  (derived  from  brass)  is  more  appropriate. 

In  uniting  tin,  copper,  brass,  etc.,  •with  any  of  the  sofl 
solders,  a  copper  soldering-iron  is  generally  used.  This  tool 
and  the  manner  of  using  it  are  too  Veil  known  to  need  de- 
scription. In  many  cases,  however,  the  Work  may  be  done 
more  neatly  without  the  soldering-iron,  by  filing  or  turning 
the  joints  so  that  they  fit  closely,  moistening  them  with  tho 
soldering  fluid  described  hereafter,  placing  a  piece  of  Smooth 
tin-foil  between  them,  tying  them  together  with  binding  wire, 
and  heating  the  whole  in  a  lamp  or  tire  till  the  tin-foil  melts. 
We  have  often  joined  pieces  of  brass  in  this  way  so  that  tho 
joints  were  quite  invisible.  Indeed,  with  good  soft  solder 
almost  all  work  may  be  done  over  a  spirit  lamp  or  even  a 
candle,  without  the  use  of  a  soldering-iron. 

More  minute  directions  may  be  found  in  the  Young  Scien- 
tist, Vol.  I,  page  56. 

Advantage  may  be  taken  of  the  varying  degrees  of  fusi- 
bility of  solders  to  make  several  joints  in  the  same  piece  of 
work.  Thus,  if  the  first  joint  has  been  made  with  fine  tin- 
ner's solder,  there  would  be  no  danger  of  melting  it  in  mak- 
ing a  joint  near  it  with  bismuth  solder,  composed  of  lead,  4 ; 
tin,  4;  and  bismuth,  1;  and  the  melting  point  of  both  is  f^r 
enough  removed  from  that  of  a  solder  composed  of  lead,  2 ; 
tin,  1;  and  bismuth,  2;  to  1)6  in  no  danger  of  fusion  during 
the  use  of  the  latter.  * 

Soft  solders  do  not  inaKfe  /nalleable  joints.  To  join  brass, 
copper  or  iron  so  as  to  have  the  joint  very  strong  and  malle- 
able, hard  solder  must  be  used.  For  this  purpose  equal 
parts  of  silver  and  brass  will  be  found  excellent,  though  for 
iron,  copper,  or  very  infusible  brass,  nothing  is  better  than 
silver  coin  rolled  out  thin,  which  may  be  done  by  any  silver- 
smith or  dentist.  This  makes  decidedly  the  toughest  of  all 
joints,  and  as  a  little  silver  goes  a  long  way,  it  is  not  very 
expensive. 

For  most  hard  solders  borax  is  the  best  flux.  It  dissolves 
any  oxides  which  may  exist  on  the  surface  of  the  metal,  and 
protects  the  latter  from  the  further  action  of  the  air,  so  that 
the  solder  is  enabled  to  come  into  actual  contact  with  tho 
surfaces  which  are  to  be  joined.  For  soft  solders  the  best 
flux  is  a  soldering  fluid  which  may  be  prepared  by  saturating 
hydrochloric  acid  (spirit  of  salt)  with  zinc.  The  addition  of 


24  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION, 

i» 

a  little  sal  ammoniac  improves  ID.  It  is  said  that  a  solution 
of  phosphoric  acid  in  alcohol  makes  an  excellent  soldering 
fluid,  which  has  some  advantages  over  chloride  of  zinc. 

In  using  ordinary  tinner's  solder  for  uniting  surfaces  that 
are  already  tinned— such  as  tinned  plate  and  tinned  copper — 
resin  is  the  best  and  cheapest  flux,  but  when  surfaces  of  iron, 
brass  or  copper  that  have  not  been  tinned  are  to  be  joined  by 
feoft  solder,  the  soldering  fluid  is  by  far  the  most  convenient. 
Besin  possesses  this  important  advantage  over  soldering  fluid, 
that  it  does  not  induce  subsequent  corrosion  of  the  article  to 
which  it  is  applied.  When  acid  fluxes  have  been  applied  to 
anything  that  is  liable  to  rust,  it  is  necessary  to  see  that  they 
are  thoroughly  washed  off  with  clean  warm  water  and  tho 
articles  carefully  and  thoroughly  dried.  * 

Oil  and  powdered  resin  mixed  togethb.  mane  a  good  flux 
for  tinned  articles.  The  mixture  can  be  applied  with  a  small 
brush  or  a  swab  tied  to  the  end  of  a  stick. 

In  preparing  solders,  whether  hard  or  soft,  great  care  is 
requisite  to  avoid  two  faults — a  want  of  uniformity  in  the 
melted  mass,  and  a  change  in  the  proportions  of  the  con- 
stituents by  the  loss  of  volatile  or  oxidable  ingredients.  Thus, 
where  copper,  silver,  and  similar  metals  are  to  be  mixed  with 
tin,  zinc,  etc. ,  it  is  necessary  to  molt  the  more  infusible  metal 
first.  When  copper  and  zinc  arc  heated  together,  a  large 
portion  of  the  zinc  passes  off  i;i  fumes.  In  preparing  soft 
solders,  the  material  should  be  melted  under  tallow,  to  pre- 
vent waste  by  oxidation ;  and  in  melting  hard  solders,  tho 
same  object  is  accomplished  by  covering  them  with  a  thick 
layer  of  powdered  charcoal. 

To  obtain  hard  solders  of  uniform  composition,  they  are 
generally  granulated  by  pouring  them  into  water  through  a 
wet  broom.  Sometimes  they  are  cast  in  solid  masses  and 
reduced  to  powder  by  filing.  Silver  solders  for  jewelers  aro 
generally  rolled  into  thin  plates,  and  sometimes  the  soft; 
solders,  especially  those  that  are  very  fusible,  are  rolled  into 
sheets  and  cut  into  narrow  strips,  which  are  very  convenient 
for  small  work  that  is  to  be  heated  by  a  lamp. 

The  following  simple  mode  of  making  solder  wire,  which 
is  very  handy  for  small  wrork,  will  be  found  useful.  Take  a 
sheet  of  stiff  writing  or  drawing  paper,  and  roll  it  in  a  coni- 
cal form,  rather  broad  in  comparison  with  its  length.  Mako 
&  ring  of  stiff  wire,  to  hold  ii  in,  attaching  a  suitable  handle 


THE  WOKKSHOT*  COMPANION.  25 

to  the  ring.  The  point  of  the  cone  may  first  of  all  be  cut  off, 
to  leave  an  orifice  of  the  size  required.  When  filled  with 
molten  solder  it  should  be  held  above  a  pail  of  cold  water; 
and  the  stream  of  solder  flowing  from  the  cone  will  congeal 
as  it  runs,  and  form  the  wire.  If  held  a  little  higher,  so  that 
the  stream  of  solder  breaks  into  drops,  before  striking  the 
water,  it  will  form  handy,  elongated  "tears"  of  metal;  but, 
by  holding  it  still  higher,  each  drop  forms  a  thin  concave 
cup  or  shell,  and,  as  each  of  these  forms  have  their  own 
peculiar  uses  in  business,  many  a  mechanic  will  find  this  hint 
very  useful. 

Hard  solders  are  usually  reduced  to  powder  either  by 
granulation  or  filing,  and  then  spread  along  the  joints  after 
being  mixed  with  borax,  which  has  been  fused  and  powdered. 
It  is  not  necessary  that  the  grains  of  solder  should  be  placed 
between  the  pieces  to  be  joined,  as  with  the  aid  of  the  borax 
they  will  "  sweat "  into  the  joint  as  soon  as  fusion  takes  place. 
The  same  is  true  of  soft  solder  applied  with  soldering  fluid. 
One  of  the  essential  requisites  of  success,  hoAvever,  is  that 
the  surfaces  be  clean,  bright,  and  free  from  all  rust. 

The  best  solder  for  platinum  is  fine  gold.  The  joint  is  not 
only  very  infusible,  but  it  is  not  easily  acted  upon  by  common 
agents.  For  German-silver  joints,  an  excellent  solder  is 
composed  of  equal  parts  of  silver,  brass,  and  zinc.  The  proper 
flux  is  borax. 

Bronzing. 

Two  distinct  processes  have  had  this  name  applied  to  them. 
The  first  consists  in  staining  brass  work  a  dark  brown  or 
bronze  color  and  lacquering  it;  the  second  consists  in  par- 
tially corroding  the  brass  so  as  to  give  it  that  greenish  hue 
which  is  peculiar  to  ancient  brass  work.  The  first  is  gen- 
erally applied  to  instruments  and  apparatus,  the  second  to 
articles  of  ornament. 

Bronze  for  Brass  Instruments. — 1.  The  cheapest  and  sim- 
plest is  undoubtedly  a  light  coat  of  plumbago  or  black  lead. 
After  brushing  the  article  with  plumbago  place  it  on  a  clear 
fire  till  it  is  made  too  hot  to  be  touched.  Apply  a  plate 
brush  as  soon  as  it  ceases  to  be  hot  enough  to  burn  tile  brush. 
A  few  strokes  of  the  brush  will  produce  a  dark  brown  polish 
approaching  black,  but  entirely  distinct  from  the  well  known 
appearance  of  bl^ck  lead.  Lacquer  with  any  desired  tint, 


26  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

2.  Plate  powder  or  rouge  may  be  used  instead  of  plum- 
bago, and  gives  very  beautiful  effects. 

3.  Make  the  articles  clean,  bright  and  free  from  oil  or 
grease,  then  dip  in  aqua  fortis,  which  must  be  thoroughly 
rinsed  off  with  clean  warm  water.     Then  make  the  following 
mixture:  Hydrochloric  acid,  6  Ibs. ;  sulphate  of  iron,  £lb.; 
white  arsenic,  £  Ib.      Be   careful  to  get  all  the  ingredients 
pure.      Let  the  articles  lie  in  the  mixture  till  black,  take  out 
and  dry  in  hot  sawdust,  polish  with  black  lead,  and  lacquer 
with  green  lacquer. 

Antique  Bronze. — Dissolve  1  oz.  sal-ammoniac,  3  oz.  cream 
tartar,  and  6  oz.  common  salt  in  1  pint  of  hot  water;  ad.d  2 
oz.  nitrate  of  copper  dissolved  in  £  pint  of  water;  mix  well, 
and,  by  means  of  a  brush,  apply  it  repeatedly  to  the  article, 
which  should  be  placed  in  a  damp  situation. 

Bronzing  Liquid; — Dissolve  10  parts  of  fuchsine  and  5  parts 
of  aniline-purple  in  100  parts  of  95  per  cent,  alcohol  on  a 
water  bath;  after  solution  has  iaken  place,  add  5  parts  of 
benzoic  acid,  and  keep  the  whole  boiling  for  5  or  10  minutes, 
until  the  green  color  of  the  mixture  has  given  place  to  a  fine 
light  bronze-brown.  This  liquid  may  be  applied  to  all 
metals,  as  well  as  many  othe*  «,abstances,  yields  a  very 
brilliant  coating,  and  dries  quick1::.  It  is  applied  with  a 
brush. 

Bronzing  Wood,  Leather,  Paper,  etc.—l.  Dissolve  gum  lao 
in  four  parts  by  volume  of  pure  alcolipl,  and  then  add  bronze 
or  any  other  metal  powder  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  to 
three  parts  of  the  solution,  The  surface  to  be  covered  must 
be  very  smooth.  In  the  case  of  wood,  one  or  several  coats  of 
Mention  or  Spanish  white  are  given,  u,nd  the  object  is  care- 
fully polished.  The  mixture  is  painted  on,  and  when  a  suf- 
ficient number  of  coats  have  been  given,  the  object  is  well 
rubbed.  A  special  advantage  of  this  process  is  that  the 
coating  obtained  is  not  dull,  but  can  be  burnished, 

2.  Another  method  is  to  coat  the  object  with  copal  or 
other  varnish,  and  when  this  has  dried  so  far  as  to  become 
"  tacky  "  flust  bronze  powder  over  it.  After  a  few  hours  the 
bronzed  surface  should  Ipe  burnished  with  a  burnislier  of 
steel  or  agate. 

Brpvvning  Gun  Barrels,    (See 


THE  WOKKI?  1CP  COMPANION.  27 

Burns. 

Those  who  work  in  red-hot  metals,  glass  blowing,  etc.,  are 
sometimes  apt  to  burn  their  fingers.  It  is  well  to  know  that 
a  solution  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  (baking  soda)  promptly  and 
permanently  relieves  all  pain.  The  points  to  be  observed 
are  :  1.  Bicarbonate  of  soda  must  be  used;  washing  soda 
and  common  soda  are  far  too  irritant  to  be  applied  if  the 
burn  is  serious.  2.  The  solution  must  be  saturated.  3.  The 
/solution  must  be  ice-cold. 

A  laboratory  assistant  in  Philadelphia  having  severely 
burned  the  inside  of  the  last  joint  of  his  thumb  while  bend- 
ing glass  tubing,  applied  the  solution  of  bicarbonate  of  soda, 
and  not  only  was  the  pain  allayed,  but  the  thumb  could  be 
at  once  freely  used  without  inconvenience. 

Case-Hardening.    (See  Iron.) 
Catgut. 

This  material  is  so  valuable  for  many  purposes  that  many 
mechanics  will  find  it  useful  to  know  how  to  make  it,  as  they 
can  then  provide  themselves  with  any  size  and  length  that 
may  be  needed.  The  process  is  quite  simple.  Take  the  en- 
trails of  sheep  or  other  animals,  remembering  that  fat  animals 
afford  a  very  weak  string,  while  those  that  are  lean  produce 
a  much  tougher  article,  and  thoroughly  clean  them  from  all 
impurities,  attached  fat,  etc.  The  animal  should  be  newly 
killed.  Wash  well  in  clean  water  and  soak  in  soft  water  for 
two  days,  or  in  winter  for  three  days ;  lay  them  on  a  table  or 
board  and  scrape  them  with  a  small  plate  of  copper  having  a 
semicircular,  hole  cut  in  it,  the  edges  of  which  must  be  quite 
smooth  and  not  capable  of  cutting.  After  washing  put  them 
into  fresh  water  and  then  let  them  remain  till  the  next  day, 
when  they  are  to  be  well  scraped.  Let  them  soak  again  in 
water  for  a  night,  and  two  or  three  hours  before  they  are 
taken  out  add  to  each  gallon  of  water  2  oz.  of  potash.  They 
ought  now  to  scrape  quite  clean  from  their  inner  mucous 
coat,  and  will  consequently  be  much  smaller  in  dimensions 
than  at  first.  They  may  now  be  wiped  dry,  slightly  twisted, 
and  passed  through  a  hole  in  a  piece  of  brass  to  equalize  their 
size;  as  they  dry  they  are  passed  every  two  or  three  hours 
through  other  holes,  each  smaller  than  the  last.  When  dry 
they  will  be  round  and  well  polished,  and  after  being  oiled 
are  fit  for  use. 


23  THE  WOBKSHOP  COMPANION. 

Cements. 

General  Rides. — Some  years  ago  the  writer  called  attention* 
to  the  fact  that  quite  as  much  depends  upon  the  manner  in 
which  a  cement  is  used  as  upon  the  cement  itself.  The  best 
cement  that  ever"  was  compounded  would  prove  entirely 
worthless  if  improperly  applied.  The  following  rules  must 
be  vigorously  adhered  to  if  success  would  be  secured: 

1.  Bring  the  cement  into  intimate  contact  with  the  sur- 
faces to  be  united.     This  is  best  done  by  heating  the  pieces 
to  be  joined  in  those  cases  where  the  cement  is  melted  by 
heat,  as  in  using  resin,  shellac,  marine  glue,   etc.      Where 
solutions  are  used,  the  cement  must  be  well  rubbed  into  the 
surfaces  either  with  a  soft  brush  (as  in  the  case  of  porcelain 
or  glass),  or  by  rubbing  the  two  surfaces  together  (as  in  mak- 
ing a  glue  joint  between  two  pieces  of  wood.) 

2.  As  little  cement  «\s  possible  should  be  allowed  to  remain 
between  the  united  surfaces.     To  secure  this  the  cement 
should  be  as  liquid  as  possible  (thoroughly  melted  if  used 
with  heat),  and  the  surfaces  should  be  pressed  closely  into 
contact  (by  screws,  weights,  wedges  or  cords)  until  the  cement 
has  hardened. 

Where  the  cement  is  a  Solution  (such  as  gum  in  water)  and 
the  surfaces  are  very  absorbent  (such  as  porous  paper),  the 
surfaces  must  be  saturated  with  cement  before  they  are  brought 
together. 

4.  Plenty  of  time  should  bo  allowed  for  the  cement  to  dry 
or  harden,  and  this  is  particularly  the  case  in  oil  cements 
such  as  copsil  varnish,  boiled  oil,  white  lead,  etc.  When  two 
surfaces,  each  half  an  inch  across,  are  joined  by  means  of  a 
layer  of  white  lead  placed  between  them,  six  months  may 
elapse  before  the  cement  in  the  middle  of  the  joint  has  be- 
come hard.  In  such  cases  a  few  days  or  weeks  are  of  no 
account;  at  the  end  of  a  month  the  joint  will  be  weak  and 
easily  separated,  while  at  the  end  of  two  or  three  years  it  may 
be  so  firm  that  the  material  will  part  anywhere  else  than  at 
the  joint.  Hence,  where  the  article  is  to  be  used  immediately, 
the  only  safe  cements  are  those  which  are  liquified  by  heat 
and  which  become  hard  when  ccld.  A  joint  made  with 
marine  glue  is  firm  an  hour  after  it  has  been  made.  Next 
to  cements  that  are  liquified  by  heat,  are  those  which  consist 

"Technologist,  Vol.  I  (1870),  pa^e  iss, 


THE  WOK    SHOP  COMPANION.  20 

of  substances  dissolved  in  water  or  alcohol.  A  glue  joint  sets 
firmly  in  twenty-four  hours;  a  joint  made  with  shellac  var- 
nish Becomes  dry  in  two  or  three  days.  Oil  cements,  which 
do  not  dry  by  evaporation,  but  harden  by  oxidation  (boiled 
oil,  white  lead,  red  lead,  etc.),  are  the  slowest  of  all. 

Aquarium  Cement. — Litharge;  fine,  white,  dry  sand  and 
plaster  of  paris,  each  1  gill;  finely  pulverized  resin,  £  gill. 
Mix  thoroughly  and  make  into  a  paste  with  boiled  linseed 
oil  to  which  dryer  has  been  added.  Beat  it  well,  and  let  it 
stand  four  or  five  hours  before  using  it.  After  it  has  stood 
for  15  hours,  however,  it  loses  its  strength.  Glass  cemented 
into  its  frame  with  this  cement  is  good  for  either  salt  or 
fresh  water.  It  has  been  used  at  the  Zoological  Gardens, 
London,  with  great  success.  It  might  be  useful  for  con- 
structing tanks  for  other  purposes  or  for  stopping  leaks. 

Armenian  Cement. — The  jewellers  of  Turkey,  who  are 
mostly  Armenians,  have  a  singular  method  of  ornamenting 
watch  cases,  etc.,  with  diamonds  and  other  precious  stones 
by  simply  gluing  or  cementing  them  on.  The  stone  is  set  in 
gold  or  silver,  and  the  lower  part  of  the  metal  made  flat  or 
to  correspond  with  that  part  to  which  it  is  to  be  fixed.  It  is 
then  warmed  gently  and  the  glue  applied,  which  is  so  very 
strong  that  the  parts  thus  cemented  never  separate.  This 
glue,  which  will  firmly  unite  bits  of  glass  and  even  polished 
steel,  and?may,  of  course,  be  applied  to  a  vast  variety  of  useful 
purposes,  is  thus  made  :  Dissolve  five  or  six  bits  of  gum 
mastic,  each  the  size  of  a  large  pea,  in  as  much  alcohol  as 
will  suffice  to  render  it  liquid;  in  another  vessel  dissolve  as 
much  isinglass,  previously  a  little  softened  in  water,  (though 
none  of  the  water  must  be  used,)  in  good  brandy  or  rum,  as 
will  make  a  two-ounce  phial  of  very  strong  glue,  adding  two 
small  bits  of  gum  galbanum,  or  ammoniacum,  which  must 
be  rubbed  or  ground  until  they  are  dissolved.  Then  mix 
the  whole  with  a  sufficient  heat,  keep  the  glue  in  a  phial 
closely  stopped,  and  when  it  is  to  be  used  set  the  phial  in 
/boiling  water.  To  avoid  the  cracking  of  the  phial  by  ex- 
posure to  such  sudden  heat,  use  a  thin  green  glass  phial,  and 
hold  it  in  the  steam  for  a  few  seconds  before  ir^mersin^  it  in 
the  hot  water.  / 

Bucklantfs  Cement. — Finely  powdered  white  sugar,  1  oz. ; 
finely  powdered  starch,  3  oz. ;  finely  powdered  gum  arable, 
4  oz.  Bub  well  together  in  a  dry  mortar;  then  little  by  little 


30  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

add  cold  water  until  it  is  of  the  thickness  of  melted  glue;  put 
in  a  wide  mouthed  bottle  and  cork  closely.  The  powder, 
thoroughly  ground  and  mixed,  may  be  kept  for  any  length  of 
time  in  a  wide  mouthed  bottle,  and  when  wanted  a  little  may 
be  mixed  with  water  with  a  stiff  brush.  It  answers  ordinarily 
for  all  the  purposes  for  which  mucilage  is  used,  and  as  a 
cement  for  labels  it  is  specially  good,  as  it  does  not  become 
brittle  and  crack  off. 

Casein  Mucilage. — Take  the  curd  of  skim-milk  (carefully 
freed  from  cream  or  oil),  wafth  it  thoroughly  and  dissolve  it 
to  saturation  in  a  cold  concentrated  solution  of  borax.  This 
mucilage  keeps  well,  and  as  regards  adhesive  power  far  sur- 
passes the  mucilage  of  gum  arabic. 

Casein  and  Soluble  Glass. — Casein  dissolved  in  soluble 
silicate  of  soda  or  potassa,  makes  r  very  strong  cement  for 
glass  or  porcelain. 

Cheese  Cement  for  mcnclhifj  C/t./ia,  etc. — Take  skim  milk 
cheese,  cut  it  in  slices  and  boil  it  in  water.  Wash  it  in  cold 
water  and  knead  it  in  warm  water  several  times.  Place  it 
warm  on  a  levigating  stone  and  knead  it  with  quicklime.  It 
will  join  marble,  stone  or  earthenware  so  tli^t  the  joining  is 
scarcely  to  be  discovered. 

Chinese  Cement  (Schio-liao). — To  three  parts  of  fresh  beaten 
blood  are  added  four  parts  of  slaked  lime  and  a  little  alum; 
a  thin,  pasty  mass  is  produced,  which  can  be  used  imme- 
diately. Objects  which  are  to  be  made  specially  water-proof 
are  painted  by  the  Chinese  twice,  or  at  the  most  three  times. 
Dr.  Scherzer  saw  in  Pekin  a  wooclen  box  which  had  travelled 
the  tedious  road  via  Siberia  to  St.  Petersburg  and  back, 
which  was  found  to  be  perfectly  sound  and  water-proof. 
Even  baskets  made  of  straw  became,  by  the  use  of  this 
cement,  perfectly  serviceable  in  the  transportation  of  oil. 
Pasteboard  treated  therewith  receives  the  appearance  and 
strength  of  wood.  Most  of  the  wooden  public  buildings  of 
China  are  painted  with  schio-liao,  which  gives  them  an  un- 
pleasant reddish  appearance,  but  adds  to  their  durability. 
This  cement  was  tried  in  the  Austrian  department  of  Agri- 
culture, and  by  the  "  Vienna  Association  of  Industry,"  and 
in  both  cases  the  statements  of  Dr.  Scherzer  were  found  to 
be  strictly  accurate. 

Chinese  Glue. — Shellac  dissolved  in  alcohol.  Used  for 
joining  wood,  earthenware,  glass,  etc.  This  cement  requires 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  31 

considerable  time  to  become  thoroughly  hard,  and  even  then 
is  not  as  strong  as  good  glue.  Its  portability  is  its  only 
recommendation. 

Faraday's  Cap  Cement. — Electrical  Cement. — Resin,  5  oz. ; 
beeswax  1  oz. ;  red  ochre  or  Venetian  red  in  powder,  1  oz. 
Dry  the  earth  thoroughly  on  a  stove  at  a  temperature  above 
212°.  Melt  the  wax  and  resin  together  and  stir  in  the 
powder  by  degrees.  Stir  until  cold,  lest  the  earthy  matter 
settle  to  the  bottom.  Used  for  fastening  brass  work  to  glass 
tubes,  flasks,  etc. 

Glass,  Earthenware,  etc.,  Cement  for. — Dilute  white  of  egg 
with  its  bulk  of  water  and  beat  up  thoroughly.  Mix  to  the 
consistence  of  thin  paste  with  powdered  quicklime.  Must 
be  used  immediately. 

Glass  Cement. — Take  pulverized  glass,  10  parts;  powdered 
fluorspar,  20  parts;  soluble  silicate  of  soda,  60  parts.  Both 
glass  and  fluorspar  must  be  in  the  finest  possible  condition, 
which  is  best  done  by  shaking  each,  in  fine  powder,  with 
water,  allowing  the  coarser  particles  to  deposit,  and  then  to 
pour  off  the  remainder  which  holds  the  finest  particles  in 
suspension.  The  mixture  must  be  made  very  rapidly,  by 
quick  stirring,  and  when  thoroughly  mixed  must  be  at  once 
applied.  This  is  said  to  yield  an  excellent  cement. 

Glue  is  undoubtedly  the  most  important  cement  used  in 
the  arts!  Good  glue  is  hard,  clear  (not  necessarily  light- 
colored,  however, )  and  free  from  bad  taste  and  smell.  Glue 
which  is  easily  dissolved  in  cold  water  is  not  strong.  Good 
glue  merely  swells  in  cold  water  and  must  be  heated  to  the 
boiling  point  before  it  will  dissolve  thoroughly. 

Good  glue  requires  more  water  than  poor,  consequently 
you  cannot  dissolve  six  pounds  of  good  glue  in  the  same 
quantity  of  water  you  can  six  pounds  of  poor.  The  best  glue, 
which  is  clear  and  red,  will  require  from  one-half  to  more 
than  double  the  water  that  is  required  with  poor  glue,  and 
the  quality  of  which  can  be  discovered  by  breaking  a  piece. 
If  good,  it  will  break  hard  and  tough,  and  when  broken 
will  be  irregular  on  the  broken  edge.  If  poor,  it  will  break 
0ornparatively  easy,  leaving  a  smooth,  straight  edge. 

In  dissolving  glue,  it  is  beet  to  weigh  the  glue,  and  weigh 
or  measure  the  water.  If  not  done  there  is  a  liability  of  get- 
ting more  glue  than  the  water  can  properly  dissolve.  It  is  a 
good  plan,  when  once  the  quantity  of  water  that  any  sample 


82  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

of  glue  will  take  up  lias  been  ascertained,  to  put  the  glue  and 
water  together  at  least  six  hours  before  heat  is  applied,  and 
if  it  is  not  soft  enough  then,  let  it  remain  longer  in  soak,  for 
there  is  no  danger  of  good  glue  remaining  in  pure  water,  even 
for  forty-eight  hours. 

From  careful  experiments  with  dry  glue  immersed  for 
twenty -four  hours  in  water  at  60°  Fah.,  and  thereby  trans- 
formed into  a  jelly,  it  was  found  that  the  finest  ordinary  glue, 
or  that  made  from  white  bones,  absorbs  twelve  times  its 
weight  of  water  in  twenty -four  hours;  from  dark  bones,  the 
glue  absorbs  nine  times  its  weight  of  water;  while  the  ordi- 
nary glue  made  from  animal  refuse,  absorbs  but  three  to  five 
times  its  weight  of  water. 

Glue,  being  an  animal  substance,  it  must  be  kept  sweet; 
to  do  this  it  is  necessary  to  keep  it  cool  after  it  is  once  dis- 
solved, and  not  in  use.  In  all  cases  keep  the  glue-kettle  clean 
and  sweet,  by  cleansing  it  often. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  bum  it,  and,  therefore,  it 
should  always  be  prepared  in  a  water  bath. 

Carpenters  should  remember  that  fresh  glue  dries  more 
readily  than  that  which  has  been  once  or  twice  melted. 

The  advantage  of  frozen  glue  is  that  it  can  be  made  up  at 
once,  on  account  of  its  being  so  porous.  Frozen  giuo  of 
same  grade  is  as  strong  as  if  dried. 

If  glue  is  of  first-rate  quality,  it  can  be  used  on  most  kinds 
of  wood  work  very  thin,  and  make  the  joint  as  strong  as  the 
original.  "White  glue  is  only  made  white  by  bleaching. 

Glue,  Liquid. — -1.  A  very  strong  glue  may  be  made  by  dis- 
solving 4  oz.  of  glue  in  16  ounces  of  strong  acetic  acid  by  the 
aid  of  heat.  It  is  semi-solid  at  ordinary  temperatures,  but 
needs  only  to  be  warmed,  by  placing  the  vessel  containing  it 
into  hot  water,  to  be  ready  for  use. 

2.  Dilute  officinal  phosphoric  -acid  with   two  parts,  by 
weight  of  water,  and  saturate  with  carbonate  of  ammonia; 
dilute  the  resulting  liquid,  which  must  be  still  somewhat 
acid,  with  another  part  of  distilled  water,  warm  it  on  a  water- 
bath,  and  dissolve  in  it  enough  good  glue  to  form  a  thick, 
syrupy  liquid.     It  must  be  kept  in  well-closed  bottles. 

3.  A   most  excellent  form  is  also   Dumoulin's  Liquid  and 
Unalterable  Glue.     This  is  made  as  follows :    Dissolve  8  oz.  of 
best  glue  in  £  pint  of  water  in  a  wide-mouthed  bottle,  by 
Jieating  the  bottle  in  a  water-bath.     Then  add  slowly  2J  oz. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  33 

of  nitric  acid,  spec.  gr.  1330,  htirring  constantly.  Effer- 
vescence takes  place  under  escape  of  nitox  "<s  acid  gas.  When 
all  the  acid  has  been  added,  the  liquid  is  allowed  to  cool. 
Keep  it  well  corked,  and  it  will  be  ready  for  use  at  any 
moment.  It  does  not  gelatinize,  or  putrefy  or  ferment.  It 
is  applicable  to  many  domestic  uses,  such  as  mending  china, 
wood,  etc. 

Glue,  Mouth. — Good  glue,  1  Ib. ;  isin>lass,  4-  02,  Soften  in 
water,  boil  and  add  £  Ib.  fine  brown  sugar.  Boil  till  pretty 
thick  and  pour  into  moulds. 

Glue,  Portable. — Put  a  pinch  of  shredded  gelatine  into  a 
wide-mouthed  bottle;  put  on  it  a  very  little  water,  and  about 
one-fourth  part  of  glacial  acetic  acid;  put  in  a  well -fitting 
cork.  If  the  right  quantity  of  water  and  acid  be  used,  the 
gelatine  will  swell  up  into  worm-like  pieces,  quite  elastic,  but 
at  the  same  time,  firm  enough  to  be  handled  comfortably. 
The  acid  will  make  the  preparation  keep  indefinitely.  When 
required  for  use,  take  a  small  fragment  of  the  swelled  gela- 
tine, and  warm  the  end  of  it  in  the  flame  of  a  match  or  candle; 
it  will  immediately  "run"  into  a  fine  clear  glue,  which  can 
be  applied  at  once  direct  to  the  article  to  be  mended.  The 
thing  is  done  in  half  a  minute,  and  is,  moreover,  done  well, 
for  the  gelatine  so  treated  makes  the  very  best  and  finest  glue 
that  can^be  had.  This  plan  might  be  modified  by  dissolving 
a  trace  of  chrome  alum  in  the  water  used  for  moistening  the 
gelatine,  in  which  case,  no  doubt,  the  glue  would  becomo 
insoluble  when  set.  But  for  general  purposes}  there  is  no 
need  for  s-ubsequent  insolubility  in  glue. 

Gutta-Percha  Cement. — This  highly  recommended  cement 
is  made  by  melting  together,  in  an  iron  pan,  2  parts  common 
pitch  and  1  part  gutta-percha,  stirring  them  well  together 
until  thoroughly  incorporated,  and  then  pouring  the  liquid 
into  cold  water.  When  cold  it  is  black,  solid,  and  elastic; 
but  it  softens  with  heat,  and  at  100°  Fahr.  is  a  thin  fluid. 
It  may  be  used  as  a  soft  paste,  or  in  the  liquid  state,  and 
answers  an  excellent  purpose  in  cementing  metal,  glass, 
porcelain,  ivory,  &c.  It  may  be  used  instead  of  putty  for 
glazing  windows. 

Iron  Cement  foi*  closing  the  Joints  of  Iron  Pipes.  — Take  of 
coarsely  powdered  iron  borings,  5  pounds;  powdered  sal  ^ 
ammoniac,  2  oz. ;    sulphur,   1  oz. ;    and  water  sufficient  to" 
moisten  it.     This  composition  hardens  rapidly;  but  if  timo 


84  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

can  be  allowed  it  sets  more  firmly  without  the  sulphur.  It 
must  be  used  as  st'.n  as  mixed  and  rammed  tightly  into  the 
joints. 

2.  Take  sal-amm^mwo,  2  02. ;  sublimed  sulphur,  1  oz. ;  cast- 
iron  filings  or  fine  turnings,  1  Ib.  Mix  in  a  mortar  and  keep 
the  powder  dry.  When  it  is  to  be  used,  mix  it  with  twenty 
times  its  weight  of  clean  iron  turnings,  or  filings,  and  grind 
the  whole  in  a  mortar;  then  wet  it  with  water  until  it  becomes 
of  convenient  consistence,  when  it  is  to  be  applied  to  the 
joint.  After  a  time  it  becomes  as  hard  and  strong  as  any 
part  of  the  metal. 

Japanese  Cement. — Paste  made  of  fine  rice  flour. 

Kerosene  Oil  Lamps. — The  cement  commonly  used  for 
fastening  the  tops  on  kerosene  lamps  is  plaster  of  paris, 
which  is  porous  and  quickly  penetrated  by  the  kerosene. 
Another  cement  which  has  not  this  defect  is  made  with  three 
parts  of  resin,  one  of  caustic  soda  and  five  of  water.  This 
composition  is  mixed  with  half  its  weight  of  plaster  of  paris. 
It  sets  firmly  in  about  three-quarters  of  an  hour.  It  is  said 
to  be  of  great  adhesive  power,  not  permeable  to  kerosene,  a 
low  conductor  of  heat  and  but  superficially  attacked  by  hot 
water. 

Labels,  Cement  for.—\.  Macerate  5  parts  of  good  glue  in 
18  parts  of  water.  Boil  and  add  9  parts  rock  candy  and  o 
parts  gum  arabic. 

2.  Mix  dextrine  with  water  and  add  a  drop  or  two  of 
glycerine. 

3  A  mixture  of  1  part  of  dry  chloride  of  calcium,  or  2  parts 
of  the  same  salt  in  the  crystallized  form,  and  36  parts  of  gum 
arabic,  dissolved  in  water  to  a  proper  consistency,  forms  a 
mucilage  wrhich  holds  well,  does  not  crack  by  drying,  and 
yet  does  not  attract  sufficient  moisture  from  the  air  to  become 
wet  in  damp  weather. 

4.  For  attaching  labels  to  tin  and  other  bright  metallic 
surfaces,  first  rub  the  surface  with  a  mixture  of  muriatic  acid 
and  alcohol;  then  apply  the  label  with  a  very  thin  coating  of 
the  paste,  and  it  will  adhere  almost  as  well  as  on  glass. 

5.  To  make  cement  for  attaching  labels  to  metals,  take  ten 
parts  tragacanth  mucilage,  ten  parts  of  honey,  and  one  part 
flour.     The  flour  appears  to  hasten  the  drying,  and  renders 
it  less  susceptible  to  damp.     Another  cement  that  will  resist 
the  damp  still  better,  but  will  not  adhere  if  the  surface  is 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  35 

greasy,  is  made  by  boiling  together  two  parts  shellac,  one 
part  borax,  and  sixteen  par.  is  water.  Flour  paste  to  which  a 
certain  proportion  of  nitric  acid  has  been  added,  and  heat 
applied,  makes  a  lasting  cement,  but  the  acid  often  acts 
upon  the  metals.  The  acid  converts  the  starch  into  dextrine. 

6.  The  Archives  of  Pharmacy  gives  the  following  recipe  for 
damp-proof  mucilage  for  labels :  Macerate  five  parts  of  good 
glue  in  eighteen  to  twenty  parts  of  water  for  a  day,  and  to 
the  liquid  add  nine  parts  of  rock  candy  and  three  parts  of 
gum  arabic.  The  mixture  can  be  brushed  upon  paper  while 
lukewarm;  it  keeps  well,  does  not  stick  together,  and,  when 
moistened,  adheres  firmly  to  bottles.  For  the  labels  of  soda 
or  seltzer-water  bottles,  it  is  well  to  prepare  a  paste  of  good 
rye  flour  and  glue,  to  which  linseed-oil,  varnish,  and  turpen- 
tine have  been  added,  in  the  proportion  of  half  an  ounce  each 
to  the  pound.  Labels  prepared  in  the  latter  way  do  not  fall 
off  in  damp  cellars. 

Leather  and  Metal,  Cement  for  Uniting. — Wash  the  metal 
with  hot  gelatine;  steep  the  leather  in  an  infusion  of  nut 
galls  (hot)  and  bring  the  two  together. 

Leather  Belting,  Cement  for. — One  who  has  tried  everything 
says  that  after  an  experience  of  fifteen  years  he  has  found 
nothing  to  equal  the  following:  Common  glue  and  isinglass, 
equal  parts,  soaked  for  10  hours  in  just  enough  water  to 
cover  them.  \  Bring  gradually  to  a  boiling  heat  and  add  pure 
tannin  until  the  whole  becomes  ropy  or  appears  like  the 
white  of  eggs  Buff  off  the  surfaces  to  be  joined,  apply  this 
cement  warm,  and  clamp  firmly. 

Litharge  and  Grlycerim  Cement. — A  cement  made  of  very 
finely  powdered  oxide  of  lead  (litharge)  and  concentrated 
glycerine,  unites  wood  to  iron  with  remarkable  efficiency. 
The  composition  is  insoluble  in  most  acids,  is  unaffected  by 
the  action  of  moderate  heat,  sets  rapidly,  and  acquires  an 
extraordinary  hardness. 

Marine  Glue. — The  true  maiine  glue  is  a  combination  of 
shellac  and  caoutchouc  in  proportions  which  vary  according 
to  the  purposes  for  which  the  cement  is  to  be  used.  Some  is 
very  hard,  others  quite  soft.  The  degree  of  softness  is  also 
regulated  by  the  proportion  of  benzole  used  for  dissolving 
the  caoutchouc.  Marine  glue  is  more  easily  purchased  than 
made,  but  where  a  small  quantity  is  needed  the  following  re- 
cipe is  said  to  give  very  good  results :  Dissolve  one  part  of 


36  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

India-rubber  in  12  parts  of  benzole,  and  to  the  solution  add 
20  parts  of  powdered  shellac,  heating  the  mixture  cavt-iousty 
over  the  fire.  Apply  with  a  brush. 

The  following  recipe,  taken  from  New  Remedies,  is  said  to 
yield  a  strong  cement:  10  parts  of  caoutchouc  or  India-rub- 
ber are  dissolved  in  120  parts  of  benzine  or  petroleum  (?) 
naphtha  with  the  aid  of  a  gentle  heat.  When  the  solution  is 
complete,  which  sometimes  requires  10  to  14  days,  20  parts 
of  asphalt  are  melted  in  an  iron  vessel,  and  the  caoutchouc 
solution  is  poured  in  very  slowly,  in  a  fine  stream,  and  under 
continued  heating,  until  the  mass  has  become  homogeneous, 
and  nearly  all  of  the  solvent  has  been  driven  off.  It  is  then 
poured  out  and  cast  into  greased  tin  moulds.  It  forms  dark- 
brown  or  black  cakes,  which  are  very  hard  to  break.  This 
cement  requires  considerable  heat  to  melt  it;  and  to  prevent 
it  from  being  burnt,  it  is  best  to  heat  a  capsule  containing  a 
piece  of  it  first  on  a  water-bath,  until  the  cake  softens  and 
begins  to  be  liquid.  It  is  then  carefully  wiped  dry,  and 
heated  over  a  naked  flame,  under  constant  stirring,  up  to 
about  300°  F.  The  edges  of  the  article  to  be  mended  should, 
if  possible,  also  be  heated  to  at  least  212°  F.,  so  as  to  permit 
the  cement  to  be  applied  at  leisure  and  with  care.  The 
thinner  the  cement  is  applied,  the  better  it  binds. 

Metal,  Cement  for  attaching  to  Glass. — Copal  varnish,  15; 
drying  oil,  5;  turpentine,  3.  Melt  in  a  water-bath,  and  add 
10  parts  slaked  lime. 

Paris  Cement  for  mending  Shells  and  otlift  •'w'meiis. — Gum 
arabic,  5;  sugar  candy,  2.  White  lead,  enough  to  color. 

Paste. — The  best  paste  is  made  of  good  flour,  well  boiled. 
Eesin,  etc.,  do  more  harm  than  good. 

2.  An  excellent  white  paste  may  be  made  by  dissolving  2J 
oz.  gum  arabic  in  2  quarts  hot  water  and  thickening  with 
wheat  flour.     To  this  is  added  a  solution  of  alum  and  sugar 
of  lead;  the  mixture  is  heated  and  stirred  till  about  to  boil, 
when  it  is  allowed  to  cool. 

3.  Four  parts,  by  weight,  of  glue  are  allow  ^  to  noften  in 
15  parts  of  cold  water  for  some  hours,  and  then  moderately 
heated  till  the  solution  becomes  quite  clear.      65  parts  of 
boiling  water  are  now  added  with  stirring.     In  another  vessel 
80  parts  of  starch  paste  are  stirred  up  with  20  parts  of  cold 
water,  so  that  a  thin  milky  fluid  is  obtained  without  lumps. 
Into  this  the  boiling  glue  solution  is  poured,  with  constant 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  37 

stirring,  and  the  whole  is  kept  at  the  boiling  temperature. 
After  cooling,  10  drops  of  carbolic  acid  are' added  to  the 
paste.  This  paste  is  of  extraordinary  adhesive  power,  and 
may  be  used  for  leather,  paper,  or  cardboard  with  great  suc- 
cess. It  must  be  preserved  in  closed  bottles  to  prevent 
evaporation  of  the  water,  and  will,  in  this  way,  keep  good 
for  years. 

4.  Rice  flour  makes  an  excellent  paste  for  fine  paper  work. 

5.  Gum  tragacanth  and  water  make  an  ever  ready  paste. 
A  few  drops  of  any  kind  of  acid  should  be  added  to  the  water 
before  putting  in  the  gum,  to  prevent  fermentation.     This 
paste  will  not  give  that  semi-transparent  look  to  thin  paper, 
that  gam  arable  sometimes  gives,  when  used  for  mucilage. 

Porcelain  Cement. — Add  plaster  of  paris  to  a  strong  solu- 
tion of  alum  till  the  mixture  is  of  the  consistency  of  cream. 
It  sets  readily,  and  is  said  to  unite  glass,  metal,  porcelain, 
etc.,  quite  firmly.  It  is  probably  suited  for  cases  in  which 
large  rather  than  small  surfaces  are  to  be  united. 

Soft  Cement. — Melt  yellow  beeswax  with  its  weight  of  tur- 
pentine and  color  with  finely  powdered  Venetian  red.  When 
cold  it  has  the  hardness  of  soap,  but  is  easily  softened  and 
moulded  with  the  fingers,  and  for  sticking  things  together 
temporarily  it  is  invaluable. 

Soluble  Glass  Cements. — When  finely-pulverized  chalk  is 
stirred  into  a  solution  of  soluble  glass  of  30°  B  until  the 
mixture  is  fine  and  plastic,  a  cement  is  obtained  which  will 
harden  in  between  six  and  eight  hours,  possessing  an  ex- 
traordinary durability,  and  alike  applicable  for  domestic  and 
industrial  purposes.  If  any  of  the  following  substances  be 
emplo}red  besides  chalk,  differently-colored  cements  of  the 
same  general  character  are  obtained : — 1.  Finely  pulverized  or 
levigated  stibnite  (grey  antimony,  or  black  sulphide  of  anti- 
mony) will  produce  a  dark  cement,  which,  after  burnishing 
with  an  agate,  will  present  a  metallic  appearance.  2.  Pulver- 
ized cast  iron,  a  grey  cement.  3.  Zinc  dust  (so-called  zinc 
grey),  an  exceedingly  hard  grey  cement,  which,  after  burnish- 
ing, will  exhibit  the  white  and  brilliant  appearance  of  metallic 
zinc.  This  cement  may  be  employed  with  advantage  in 
mending  ornaments  and  vessels  of  zinc,  sticking  alike  well  to 
metals,  stone,  and  wood.  4.  Carbonate  of  copper,  a  bright 
green  cement.  5.  Sesquioxide  of  chromium,  a  dark  green 
cement.  6.  Thenard's  blue  (cobalt  blue),  a  blue  cement. 


38  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

7.    Minium,    an   orange-colored   cement.       8.  Vermilion, 
splendid  red  cement.     9.  Carmine  red,  a  violet  cement. 

SoreFs  Cement. — Mix  commercial  zinc  white  with  £  its  bulk 
of  fine  sand,  adding  a  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc  of  1'2(5 
specific  gravity,  and  rub  the  whole  thoroughly  together  in  a 
mortar.  The  mixture  must  be  applied  at  once,  as  it  hardens 
very  quickly. 

Steam  Boiler  Cement. — Mix  two  parts  of  finely  powdered 
litharge  with  one  part  of  very  fine  sand,  and  one  part  of 
quicklime  which  has  been  allowed  to  slack  spontaneously 
by  exposure  to  the  air.  This  mixture  may  be  kept  for  any 
length  of  time  without  injuring.  In  using  it  a  portion  is 
mixed  into  paste  with  linseed  oil,  or,  still  better,  boiled  lin- 
seed oil.  In  this  state  it  must  be  quickly  applied,  as  it  soon 
becomes  hard. 

Transparent  Cement  for  Glass. — Fine  Canada  balsam. 

Turner's  Cement. — Melt  1  Ib.  of  resin  in  a  pan  over  the  fire, 
and,  when  melted,  add  a  \  of  a  Ib.  of  pitch.  While  these 
are  boiling  add  brick  dust  until,  by  dropping  a  little  on  a 
cold  stone,  you  think  it  hard  enough.  In  winter  it  may  be 
necessary  to  add  a  little  tallow.  By  means  of  this  cement  a 
piece  of  wood  may  be  fastened  to  the  chuck,  which  will  hold 
when  cool ;  and  when  the  work  is  finished  it  may  be  removed 
by  a  smart  stroke  with  the  tool.  Any  traces  of  the  cement 
may  be  removed  from  the  work  by  means  of  benzine. 

Wollaston's  While  Cement  for  large  objects. — Beeswax,  1  oz. ; 
resin,  4  oz. ;  powdered  plaster  of  paris,  5  oz.  Melt  together. 
To  use,  warm  the  edges  of  the  specimen  and  use  the  cement 
warm. 

Copper. 

Copper  is  probably  the  most  difficult  of  all  the  metals  to 
work  by  the  file  or  lathe,  but  pure  copper  may  be  cut  liko 
cheese  with  a  graver,  and  consequently  it  is  extensively  used 
for  plates  where  the  number  of  impressions  required  is  not 
very  large.  In  filing  copper  the  file  should  be  well  chalked, 
and  in  cutting  it  in  the  lathe  use  plenty  of  soapy  water,  and 
let  the  solution  of  soap  be  pretty  strong*  In  polishing  copper 
it  will  be  found  that  owing  to  its  softness,  it  burnishes  easily 
(see  article  on  polishing  metals),  but  where  it  is  polished  by 
means  of  abrasive  processes,  that  is,  by  the  use  of  powders 
which  grind  it  or  wear  it  down,  great  care  must  be  taken  to 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  33 

have  the  powders  free  from  particles  which  are  larger  than 
the  average,  as  these  would  be  sure  to  scratch  the  metal, 
owing  to  its  softness.  For  polishing  copper  by  abrasion, 
only  the  softer  polishing  powders  should  be  used,  such  as 
rotten  stone,  prepared  chalk,  rnd  soft  rouge.  These  are  used 
with  oil  at  first,  but  the  last  touches  are  given  dry. 

Copper  may  be  welded  by  the  use  of  proper  fluxes.  The 
best  compound  for  this  purpose  is  a  mixture  of  one  part  of 
phosphate  of  soda  and  two  parts  of  boracic  acid.  This  weld- 
ing powder  should  be  strewn  on  the  surface  of  the  copper  at 
a  red  heat;  the  pieces  should  then  be  heated  up  to  a  full 
cherry  red,  or  yellow  heat,  and  brought  immediately  under 
the  hammer,  when  they  may  be  as  readily  welded  as  iron 
itself.  For  instance,  it  is  possible  to  weld  together  a  small 
rod  of  copper  which  has  been  broken;  the  ends  should  be 
beveled,  laid  on  one  another,  seized  by  a  pair  of  tongs,  and 
placed  together  with  the  latter  in  the  fire  and  heated;  the 
welding  powder  should  then  be  strewn  on  the  ends,  which, 
after  a  further  heating,  may  be  welded  so  soundly  as  to  bend 
and  stretch  as  if  they  had  never  been  broken.  It  is  necessary 
to  carefully  observe  two  things  in  the  course  of  the  operation. 
First,  the  greatest  care  must  be  taken  that  no  charcoal  or 
other  solid  carbon  comes  into  contact  with  the  points  to  be 
welded,  as  otherwise  phosphide  of  copper  would  be  formed, 
which  would  cover  the  surface  of  the  copper  and  effectually 
prevent  a  weld.  In  this  case  it  is  only  by  careful  treatment 
in  an  oxidizing  fire  and  a  plentiful  application  of  the  welding 
powder  that  the  copper  can  again  be  welded.  It  is,  there- 
fore, advisable  to  heat  the  copper  in  a  flame,  as,  for  instance, 
a  gas  flame.  Second,  as  copper  is  a  much  softer  metal  than 
iron,  it  is  much  softer  at  the  required  heat  than  the  latter  at 
its  welding  heat,  and  the  parts  welded  can  not  offer  any  great 
resistance  to  the  blows  of  the  hammer.  They  must,  there- 
fore, be  so  shaped  as  to  be  enabled  to  resist  such  blows  as 
well  as  may  be,  and  it  is  also  well  to  use  a  wooden  hammer, 
which  does  not  exercise  so  great  a  force  on  account  of  its 
lightness.  Mr.  Rust,  the  inventor  of  this  process,  states  that, 
as  long  ago  as  1854,  he  welded  strips  of  copper  plates  to- 
gether and  drew  them  infco  a  rod;  he  also  made  a  chain,  the 
links  of  which  had  been  made  of  pretty  thick  wire  and 
welded. 

Coppering  Iran  or  Steel. — The  following  process  is  said  to 


40  THE  WORKSHOjt  COMPANION. 

give  very  good  results :  First  make  the  article  entirely  bright 
by  file,  scratch  brush,  or  any  of  the  usrifJ  modes.  Apply  to 
the  surface  a  coating  oi'  cream  of  tartar,  then  Bpriilkie  tho 
surface  with  a  saturated  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  and 
rub  with  a  hard  brush.  The  coating  of  copper  deposited  on 
the  iron  is  said  to  be  very  even  and  durable. 

Coral,  Artificial. 

Twigs,  raisin  stalks,  and  any  objects  having  the  general 
outline  of  branched  coral,  may  be  made  to  resemble  that 
material  by  being  dipped  in  a  mixture  of  4  parts  resin,  8 
parts  beeswax  and  2  parts  vermillion,  melted  together  and 
thoroughly  mixed.  The  effect  is  very  pretty,  and  for  orna- 
mental work  such  imitation  coral  is  very  useful. 

Cork. 

Corks  are  so  important  in  many  operations,  that  a  little 
knowledge  of  the  best  methods  of  working  them  is  indispen- 
sable. They  form  the  best  material  for  a  holder  for  sand- 
paper in  rubbing  down  flat  surfaces,  and  they  afford  the 
simplest  arid  most  effectual  means  of  closing  bottles  in  many 
cases.  Cork  is  easily  cut  by  means  of  a  thin,  sharp  knife, 
which  should  not  have  a  smooth  edge,  however,  but  one  set 
on  a  dry  stone,  moderately  fine.  After  having  been  cut  to 
nearly  the  right  form,  corks  are  easily  worked  to  the  proper 
size  and  shape  by  means  of  files.  Holes  are  easily  made 
through  corks  by  means  of  tin  or  brass  tubes,  which  must  bo 
thin  and  well  sharpened  on  the  edge  by  means  of  a  file.  The 
sharp  edge  being  slightly  oiled,  is  pressed  against  the  cork 
and  at  the  same  time  turned  round,  when  it  quickly  cuts  a 
smooth  straight  hole  through  the  material. 

When  it  is  desired  to  make  corks  air-tight  and  water-tight, 
the  best  method  is  to  allow  them  to  remain  for  about  five 
minutes  beneath  the  surface  of  melted  paraffine  in  a  suitable 
vessel,  the  corks  being  held  down  either  by  a  perforated  lid, 
wire  screen,  or  similar  device.  Corks  thus  prepared  can  be 
easily  cut  and  bored,  have  a  perfectly  smooth  exterior,  may 
be  introduced  and  removed  from  the  neck  of  a  flask  with 
ease,  and  make  a  perfect  seal. 

Crayons  for  Black-Boards. 

Spanish  white,  which  is  simply  very  fine  chalk,  is  mixed 
with  water  and  just  enough  flour  paste'  to  cause  the  particles 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  4? 

to  adhere  Avlicn  dry.  If  too  much  paste  is  used,  the  crayons 
will  1)0  too  hard  and  will  not  mark  well;  if  too  soft,  they  will 
crumble.  The  proper  proportions  should  be  found  by  ex- 
periment, as  different  qualities  of  flour  possess  different 
adhesive  properties.  The  wet  chalk  may  be  formed  into 
proper  shape  by  means  of  paper  moulds,  or  it  may  be  rolled 
out  to  the  required  shape  and  cut  into  suitable  lengths. 

For  making  drawings  of  objects  of  natural  history,  etc.,  it 
is  frequenely  desirable  to  use  colored  crayons,  the  most  use- 
ful colors  being  green,  red  and  yellow.  A  little  cheap,  dry 
paint  mixed  with  the  chalk  will  give  the  desired  tints. 

Crayons  which  are  not  too  hard  to  make  a  good  clear  mark, 
are  very  apt  to  be  brittle  and  unable  to  stand  any  pressure 
on  the  point  when  they  are  of  sufficient  length  to  be  handled 
easily.  If  the  crayons  are  made  true  cylinders,  they  may  be 
covered  with  paper,  which  will  serve  the  same  purpose  as  the 
wood  in  the  common  lead  pencil,  and  may  be  cut  away  as 
wanted.  The  common  crayons,  being  conical,  are  not  so 
easily  covered,  but  may,  nevertheless,  be  wrapped  with  a 
long,  narrow  slip  of  paper  so  as  to  be  strong  and  durable. 
Curling. 

A  method  of  finishing  such  metals  as  brass,  German  silver, 
etc. ,  which  if  well  done,  gives  a  very  handsome  appearance 
to  the  work.  The  work  must  first  be  carefully  finished  so  as 
to  have  no  scratches,  as  these  would  show  through  the  curl- 
ing and  destroy  the  effect.  After  the  metal  has  beoa.  finished 
with  line  files,  emery  paper,  Water-of-Ayr  stone,  and  finally 
the  finest  rotten  stone  applied  by  means  of  a  buff,  the  curling 
is  produced  by  means  of  a  stick  of  charcoal  moved  in  circular 
sweeps  over  the  surface,  which  should  be  kept  well  moistened 
with  water.  After  the  desired  effect  has  been  produced,  the 
metal  is  lacquered. 

We  have  seen  "curling"  applied  to  surfaces  of  considera- 
ble extent,  but  in  such  cases  the  effect  never  seemed  to  us  as 
good  as  in  the  case  of  veiy  small  articles.  If  the  sweeps  are 
large  they  give  a  coarse  appearance  to  the  work,  while  a 
large  surface  covered  with  small  sweeps  has  a  confused 
appearance. 

Cuticle,  Liquid. 

Collodion,  or  gun  cotton  dissolved  in  sulphuric  ether,  has 
no  equal  as  a  covering  for  protecting  burns,  cuts  or  wounds^ 


42  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

from  the  air.     It  soon  dries,  and  forms  a  skin-like  protectioa 
that  adheres  with  great  tenacity. 

Etching. 

Etching  is  the  art  of  cutting  lines  in  an;y  material  by  means 
of  some  corrosive  agent.  Thus,  since  nitric  acid  dissolves 
copper,  if  we  confine  the  action  of  the  acid  to  certain  lines, 
we  can  cut  grooves  of  considerable  depth  in  the  copper,  and 
these  grooves  may  be  used  either  as  lines  from  which  we  may 
print,  or  as  marks  similar  to  writing.  Iron,  brass,  steel, 
silver,  ivory,  glass,  marble,  and  many  other  materials  may  be 
cut  in  the  same  way,  by  the  action  of  suitable  acids.  As  a 
simple  and  easily  learned  method  of  forming  engraved  plates 
from  which  to  print,  the  art  of  etching  is  one  of  the  most 
eligible  for  young  persons.  The  materials  required  are  few 
and  simple,  great  freedom  of  outline  may  be  securedj  and  the 
results  are  very  pleasing. 

Copper  is  the  metal  usually  employed  for  etching  draw- 
ings. It  is  furnished  by  the  dealers  in  plates  perfectly  smooth 
and  flat,  and  of  any  desired  size.  The  surface  is  first  coated 
with  a  wax  or  varnish,  for  which  there  are  many  recipes,  the 
following  being  probably  the  best:  Take  of  beeswax  and 
asphalt,  2  parts  each;  Burgundy  pitch  and  black  pitch,  1 
part  each.  Melt  the  wax  and  the  pitch  in  an  earthen  vessel 
and  add  the  asphalt  by  degrees  in  fine  powder.  Expose  to 
heat  until  a  drop  which  has  been  cooled,  breaks  by  bending 
back  and  forth  two  or  three  times  in  the  fingers. 

A  second,  which  is  simpler  and  said  to  be  very  good,  is  com- 
posed of  asphalt,  2  oz. ;  Burgundy  pitch,  1  oz. ;  beeswax,  l£  oz. 
A  transparent  varnish  may  be  composed  of  resin,  1  oz. ; 
beeswax,  2  oz.     Melt  together. 

The  plate  having  been  polished  and  burnished,  is  grasped 
by  one  corner  in  a  hand-vice  and  warmed  over  a  spirit  lamp 
until  it  will  melt  the  varnish  or  etching  ground,  which  is 
then  spread  over  its  surface  very  thinly  by  means  of  a  ball  or 
pledget  of  cotton  tied  in  a  piece  of  silk.  Before  the  ground 
has  quite  cooled  and  solidified,  it  is  blackened- by  the  smoke 
of  a  lamp  or  candle.  The  blackening  is  necessary  so  that  *He 
design  may  be  clearly  seen  as  it  is  drawn  in. 

The  design  may  be  either  drawn  directly  on  the  plate,  or 
transferred  by  means  of  transfer  paper.  Or  it  may  be  first 
drawn  on  the  etching  ground  by  means  of  a  very  finely 


THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION.  43 

pointed  camel-hair  pencil,  using,  of  course,  a  white  color  dis- 
solved in  some  medium  which  will  adhere  to  the  ground. 
Water  is  useless.  Turpentine  answers  very  well. 

In  whatever  way  the  design  is  drawn  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  it  must  next  be  cut  in  by  means  of  a  steel  point, 
good  sewing  needles  making  excellent  o:ies,  and  different 
sizes  being  used  according  to  the  strength  of  the  lines  required. 
The  lines  having  been  traced  through  the  varnish  so  as  to 
expose  a  bright  copper  surface,  the  next  step  is  to  make  a 
border  of  wax  around  the  plate  so  that  the  acid  will  not  run 
off.  The  wax  used  for  making  tho  border  is  a  mixture  of 
beeswax,  resin  and  tallow,  of  such  a  consistency  that  it  will 
be  easily  moulded  by  the  fingers.  The  border  should  be 
nearly  half  an  inch  high,  thus  converting  the  plate  into  a 
shallow  dish.  This  dish  is  half  filled  with  a  mixture  of  one 
part  of  nitric  acid  and  three  parts  of  water.  After  this  plate 
has  been  exposed  for  a  few  minutes  to  this  liquid,  the  acid  is 
poured  off,  the  plate  waslu;d  with  pure  water  and  allowed  to 
dry.  All  the  very  delicate  lines  are  then  "stopped"  out,  as 
it  is  called,  by  being  coated  by  means  of  a  camel-hair  pencil 
with  varnish  dissolved  in  turpentine.  When  this  has  dried, 
the  acid  is  poured  back  again  and  allowed  to  act  on  the  coarser 
lines,  and  the  more  frequently  this  process  is  introduced,  the 
more  perfect  will  be  the  ultimate  result. 

When  the  lines  have  all  been  etched  to  the  required  depth, 
the  varnish  is  removed  by  warming  the  plate  and  washing 
with  turpentine.  A  copper-plate  press  is  used  to  take  off  the 
impressions. 

The  process  of  etching  is  very  simple,  and  the  results  very 
satisfactory.  As  an  artistic  recreation,  it  is  capable  of  afford- 
ing a  great  deal  of  pleasure. 

The  art  of  cutting  names,  etc. ,  on  steel  tools  and  other  ob- 
jects, is  very  simple  and  useful.  The  following  give,,?  ^cood 
results : 

Etching  Liquid  for  Steel. — Mix  1  oz.  sulphate  of  copper,  ± 
oz.  of  alum,  and  &  a  teaspoonful  of  salt  reduced  to  powder, 
with  1  gill  of  vinegar  and  20  drops  of  nitric  acid.  This  liquid 
may  be  used  either  for  eating  deeply  into  the  metal  or  for 
imparting  a  beautiful  frosted  appearance  to  the  surface, 
according  to  the  time  it  is  allowed  to  act.  Cover  the  parts 
you  wish  to  protect  from  its  influence  with  beeswax,  tallow, 
or  some  similar  substance. 


44  THE  WOBEBHOP  COMPANION. 

Etching  on  Glass. — Fancy  work,  ornameiit.nl  figures,  letter- 
ing and  monograms,  are  most  easily  and  neatly  cut  into  glass 
by  the  sand  "blast  process,  a  simple  apparatus' for  which  will 
be  found  described  in  the  Young  Scientist.  Lines  and  figures 
on  tubes,  jars,  etc.,  may  be  deeply  etched  by  smearing  the 
surface  of  the  glass  with  beeswax,  drawing 'the  lines  with  a 
steel  point,  and  exposing  the  glass  to  the  fumes  of  hydro- 
fluoric acid.  This  acid  is  obtained  by  putting  powdered 
fluorspar  into  a  tray  made  of  sheet  lead  and  pouring  sulphuric 
acid  on  it,  after  which  the  tray  is  slightly  warmed. 

The  proportions  will,  of  course,  vary  •with  the  purity  of 
the  materials  used,  fluorspar  (except  when  in  crystals)  being 
generally  mixed  with  a  large  quantity  of  other  matter,  but  this 
point  need  not  affect  the  success  of  the  operation.  Enough 
acid  to  make  a  thin  paste  with  the  powdered  spar  will  be 
about  right.  "Where  a  lead  tray  is  not  at  hand,  the  powdered 
spar  may  be  poured  on  the  glass,  and  the  acid  poured  on  it 
and  left  for  some  time.  As  a  general  rule,  the  marks  are 
opaque,  but  sometimes  they  are  transparent.  In  tins  case, 
cut  them  deeply  and  fill  up  with  black  varnish,  if  they  are 
required  to  be  very  plain,  as  in  the  case  of  graduated  vessels. 

Liquid  hydrofluoric  acid  has  been  recommended  for 
etching,  but  as  it  leaves  the  surface  on  which  it  acts  trans- 
parent, it  is  not  suitable. 

The  agent  which  corrodes  the  glass  is  a  gas  which  dees 
not  remain  in  the  mixture  of  fluorspar  and  sulphuric  acid, 
but  passes  off  in  the  vapor.  To  mix  fluorspar  and  sulphuric 
acid  and  keep  it  in  leaden  bottles  under  the  idea  that  tho 
mixture  is  hydrofluoric  acid,  is  a  gross  mistake.  Such  an 
idea  could  enter  into  the  head  of  none  but  the  compiler  of  a 
cyclopaedia  of  recipes. 

Eye,  Accidents  to. 

Those  who  are  engaged  in  mechanical  operations  run  great 
risk  of  accidents  to  the  eye,  and  therefore  a  few  hints  in  re- 
gard to  this  subject  may  be  valuable  to  our  readers. 

Minute  particles  of  dust,  sand,  cinders,  small  flies,  etc., 
are  best  removed  by  means  of  a  camel-hair  brush  or  pencil, 
moistened  but  not  wet,  and  drawn  to  a  fine  point.  The  brush 
will  absorb  the  moisture  of  the  eye  and  with  it  will  take  up 
the  mote,  provided  the  latter  has  not  been  driven  into  the 
eyeball.  "Where  a  brush  is  not  at  hand,  a  thin  strip  of  soft 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  45 

paper,  rolled  spirally  so  as  to  form  a  fine  point,  is  tlio  best 
thing. 

The  ragged  chips  and  splinters  which  are  separated  during 
the  processes  of  turning  and  chipping  off,  often  find  their 
way  into  the  eye,  and  are  sometimes  very  difficult  to  remove. 
The  use  of  magnets  has  been  recommended,  but  even  tho 
strongest  magnet  is  entirely  inefficient,  if  the  splinters  bo 
imbedded.  In  such  a  case,  if  the  operator  be  gifted  with  a 
steady  hand  and  firm  nerves,  the  best  instrument  for  remov- 
ing the  offending  particle  is  a  good,  sharp  pen-knife.  Indeed, 
we  prefer  it  in  every  case  as  being  far  superior  to  softer 
articles.  In  simple  cases  let  the  patient  stand  up  with  his 
head  firmly  held  against  a  door-post;  turn  back  the  eyelids 
with  the  fingers;  find  the  speck,  and  by  passing  the  knifo 
gently  but  firmly  over  the  ball,  you  may  sweep  it  up.  Where 
the  splinter  is  actually  imbedded  in  the  eye,  lay  the  patient  on 
his  back  on  a  table;  turn  the  eyelids  back,  and  fix  them  by  . 
means  of  a  ring,  and  then  you  will  find  yourself  free  to 
operate  without  danger  of  interference  from  the  patient'?? 
winking.  A  suitable  ring  may  be  found  in  most  bunches  of 
keys,  or  any  mechanic  can  make  one  in  two  minutes  out  of  a 
piece  of  stiff  iron  wire.  Iron  splinters  always  have  ragged 
edges,  and  can  be  caught  on  the  fine,  sharp  edge  of  a  knife 
and  lifted  out.  But  although  we  recommend  the  use  of  a 
sharp  knife,  it  must  be  remembered  that  no  cutting  of  the 
eyeball  is  to  be  permitted  in  any  case,  except  by  an  ex- 
perienced occulist. 

Where  the  person  who  is  operating  is  at  all  nervous  or 
timid,  it  will  not  do  to  use  a  knife.  In  this  case,  take  some 
soft,  white  silk  waste  and  wind  it  round  a  splinter  of  wood 
so  as  to  completely  cover  the  end  and  form  a  little  brush  of 
looped  threads.  Tie  it  fast.  When  such  a  brush  is  swept 
over  that  part  of  the  eyeball  where  the  offending  substance 
is  imbedded,  the  latter  will  soon  be  entangled  in  the  threads 
and  may  be  easily  drawn  out. 

In  all  such  cases  a  good  magnifier  will  be  found  of  great 
assistance.  The  best  form  is  perhaps  a  good  watchmaker's 
glass. 

When  corrosive  chemicals,  such  as  oil  of  vitriol,  nitric  acid, 
corrosive  salts,  etc.,  find  their  way  into  the  eye,  the  best 
application  is  abundance  of  pure  cold  water.  The  eye  should 
be  held  open  and  well  washed  out.  When  any  irritating  sub- 


46  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

stance 'gets  into  the  eye,  the  lid  is  apt  to  close  spasmodically, 
and  if  allowed  to  remain  so,  no  water  can  get  in. 

In  the  case  of  lime,  however,  the  action  of  water  woulO 
only  increase  the  difficulty.  A  little  vinegar  and  water  forma 
the  best  wash  for  liine,  potash,  soda,  or  ammonia. 

Fires. 

Most  of  the  fires  tho-fr  occur  might  be  avoided  by  proper 
care,  and  the  following  hints,  if  carefully  observed,  will  aid 
materially  in  avoiding  such  accidents: 

1.  Never  leave  matches  where  they   can  be  reached  by 
children,  and  if  one  should  fall  on  the  floor,  be  careful  and 
search  for  it  until  you  find  it.     A  match,  when  trodden  on, 
readily  ignites,  and  if  unobserved  may  cause  a  serious  fire,  or 
what  is  more  likely,  set  a  lady's  dress  in  flames.      Rats  and 
mice  have  a  great  fondness  for  matches,  and  often  carry  them 
oil' to  their  holes,  where,  by  nibbling,  they  set  them  on  firo. 
Always  keep  matches  in  tin  boxes,  and  never  in  paper  pack- 
ages. 

2.  Children  should  be  strictly  prevented  from  playing  with 
fire,  and  severely  punished  if  caught  so  offending.     It  is  far 
better  that  they  should  undergo  the  inconvenience  of  a  little 
wholesome  chastisement  than  either  set  the  house  on  fire, 
disfigure  themselves  for  life,  or  be  burnt  to  death,  from  the 
want  of  being  severely  punished  for  disobedience. 

3.  Never  leave  a  lamp  or  candle  burning  at  your  bedside 
on  a  table  when  you  go  to  bed,  and  avoid  reading  in  bed; 
this  is  a  most  fruitful  cause  of  loss  of  life  and  property. 

4.  If  a  piece  of  paper  is  used  to  light  a  lamp,  see  that  it  is 
properly  extinguished  before  leaving  it,  as  it  will  sometimes 
burst  out  on  fire  after  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  completely 
extinguished. 

5.  If  there  be  an  escape  of  gas,   so  that  the  smell  of  it  is 
very  apparent,  open  the  door  and  windows  immediately  to 
allow  its  escape,  and  facilitate  the  entrance  of  fresh  air;  and 
above  all  things  avoid  coming  any  way  near  with  a  light  of 
any  description.     As  soon  as  you  can,  shut  off  the  gas  at  the 
meter. 

6.  Be  careful  about  stove-pipes  passing  through  lath  pai- 
titions;  about  kindling  wood  left  in  the  oven  over  night  to 
dry,  and  about  the  ash-box.      Never  keep  ashes  in  a  wooden 
vessel  under  any  circumstances  whatever,  and  never  go  to. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  47 

bed  at  night  without  seeing  that  every  possible  cause  for  an 
accidental  tire  has  been  removed.  Allow  no  linen  or  cotton 
clothes  to  hang  near  a  stove  over  night  lor  the  purpose  of 
drying  them. 

1.  There  never  yet  was  a  fire  which  a  single  pail  of  water, 
if  applied  in  time,  would  not  have  quenched,  therefore  never 
go  to  bed  without  having  a  few  pails  of  water  at  hand,  and  a 
dipper  with  which  to  throw  it  on  the  fire.  Water  can  never 
be  so  well  applied  if  thrown  from  the  pail  itself.  Spontaneous 
combustion  is  no  imaginary  danger,  therefore  never  leave 
heaps  of  oiled  rags  and  similar  rubbish  lying  around. 

As  most  of  us  are  liable  to  be  caught  in  a  burning  build- 
ing, it  would  be  well  for  us  to  impress  the  following  hints 
upon  the  mind,  as  they  may  stand  us  in  good  stead  if  a  iiro 
should  occur: 

1.  Every  householder   should   make  each  person  in   his 
house  acquainted  with  the  best  means  of  escape,  whether  the 
lire  breaks  out  at  the  top  or  at  the  bottom.      In  securing  the 
street  door  and  lower  windows  for  the  night,  avoid  compli- 
cated fastenings  or  impediments  to  an  immediate  outlet  in 
case  of  fire. 

2.  Inmates,  at  the  first  alarm,  should  endeavor  to  reflect 
what  means  of  escape  there  are  in  the  house;  if  in  bed  at  the 
time,  wrap  themselves  in  a  blanket  or  bedside  carpet;  open 
neither  windows  nor  doors  more  than  necessary;  shut  every 
door  after  them.     This  is  most  important  to  observe. 

3.  In  the  midst  of  smoke  it  is  comparatively   clear  toward 
the  ground,  consequently  progress  through  "the  smoke  can 
be  made  on  the  hands  and  knees.     A  silk  handkerchief, 
worsted  stockings,   or  other  flannel  substance  wetted   and 
drawn  over  the  face,  permits  free  breathing,  and  excludes,  to 
a  great  extent,  the  smoke  from  the  lungs.      A  wet  sponge  is 
alike  efficacious. 

4.  In  the  event  of  being  unable  to  escape,  either  bj  the 
street  door  or  roof,  the  persons  in  danger  should  immediately 
make  their  way  to  a  front  room  window,  taking  care  to  close 
the  door  after  them,  and  those  who  have  charge  of  the  house- 
hold should  ascertain  that  every  individual  is  there  assembled. 

5.  Persons  thus  circumstanced   should  never  precipitate 
themselves  from  the  windows  while  there  remains  the  least 
probability  of  assistance;  and  even  in  the  last  extremity  a 
plain  rope"  is  invaluable,  or  recourse  may  be  had  to  joining 


43  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

sheets  or  blankets  together,  fastening  one  end  round  the  bed- 
post or  other  furniture.  This  will  enable  one  person  to 
lower  all  the  others  separately,  and  the  last  may  let  himsdt 
down  with  comparatively  little  risk.  Select  a  window  over 
the  doorway  rather  than  over  the  area. 

Clothes  VH,  Fire. — So  many  accidents  are  daily  occurring 
from  broken  kerosene  lamps,  and  clothes  taking  fire  from 
gas  lights  and  open  fire-places,  that  it  is  very  important  to 
know  what  to  do  under  such  circumstances.  Three  persons 
out  of  four  would  rush  right  up  to  the  burning  individual, 
and  begin  to  paw  with  their  hands  without  any  aim.  It  is 
useless  to  tell  the  victim  to  do  this  or  that,  or  call  for  water. 
In  fact  it  is  generally  best  not  to  say  a  word,  but  seize  a 
blanket  from  a  bed,  or  a  cloak,  or  any  woolen  fabric — if  none 
is  at  hand,  take  any  heavy  material — hold  the  corners  as  far 
apart  as  you  can,  stretch  them  higher  than  your  head,  and 
running  boldly  to  the  person,  make  a  motion  of  clasping  in 
the  arms,  just  about  the  shoulders.  This  instantly  smothers 
the  lire  and  saves  the  face.  The  next  instant  throw  the  un- 
fortunate person  on  the  floor.  This  is  an  additional  safety 
to  the  face  and  breath,  and  any  remnant  of  flame  can  be  put 
out  more  leisurely.  "When  the  person  whose  clothes  take  fire 
is  alone,  the  danger  is  not  unfrequently  increased  by  the 
sufferer  running  about  in  a  state  of  alarm;  whereas  it  would 
be  better  for  him  to  roll  on  the  floor  until  the  fire  is  extin- 
guished, or  better  still,  to  cover  himself  with  a  loose  carpet, 
rug,  or  blanket,  to  exclude  the  air,  till  a  sufficient  supply  of 
water  is  obtained  to  throw  over  him.  In  either  case,  after  the 
fire  has  been  put  out,  the  individual  should  be  placed  on  a 
bed,  and  the  clothes  removed  piecemeal  by  cutting  them  off; 
much  caution  is  required  in  taking  away  the  body  linen 
without  tearing  off  the  skin,  and  where  the  linen  sticks,  so 
much  only  should  be  cat  off  as  can  be  detached  readily. 

Fire  Proof  Dresses. — Some  years  ago  Queen  Victoria  ap- 
pointed a  commission  to  investigate  this  subject.  It  was 
found  that  there  were  but  four  salts  which  were  applicable 
to  light  fabrics:  1,  Phosphate  of  ammonia;  2,  a  mixture  of 
phosphate  of  ammonia  and  chloride  of  ammonia;  3,  sulphate 
of  ammonia;  4,  tungstate  of  soda.  Of  these,  the  best  was 
tungstate  of  soda,  a  salt  which  is  not  by  any  means  expensive. 
Sulphate  of  ammonia  is  objectionable,  from  the  fact  that  it 
acts  on  the  irons  and  moulds  the  fabric.  The  tungstate  of 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  49 

X. 

soda  is  neither  injurious  to  the  texture  or  color,  or  in  any 
degree  difficult  of  application  in  the  washing  process.  The 
iron  passes  over  the  material  quite  as  smoothly  as  if  no  solu- 
tion had  been  employed.  The  solution  increases  the  stiffness 
of  the  fabric,  and  its  protecting  power  against  fire  is  perfect. 
Tliis  salt  offers  only  one  difficulty,  viz:  the  formation  of  a 
bitungstate,  of  little  solubility,  which  crystallizes  from  the 
solution;  but  it  was  found  that  a  very  small  percentage  of 
phosphate  of  soda  rendered  the  tungstate  quite  stable.  The 
best  method  of  applying  these  salts  is  to  take  one  ounce  of 
tungstate  of  soda  and  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  phosphate  of 
soda,  and  dissolve  them  in  a  quart  of  water.  The  goods  aro 
moistened  with  this  solution  before  being  starched,  and  they 
may  be  afterwards  ironed  and  finished  without  the  least 
difficulty. 

Articles  prepared  in  this  way  are  perfectly  uninflammable. 
They  may  be  charred  by  exposure  to  fire,  but  they  do  not 
burn  readily  unless  there  is  some  extraneous  source  of  heat, 
and  they  can  not  be  made  to  burst  into  flame.  By  the  aid  of 
this  discovery,  a  lady  dressed  in  the  lightest  muslin  might 
walk  over  a  row  of  footlights,  and  the  only  result  would  be 
that  the  lower  part  of  her  dress  would  be  injured.  Unless 
her  person  actually  came  in  contact  *  with  the  gas  flames,  she 
hersqlf  vwould  suffer  no  injury.  In  country  places,  where 
tungstate  of  soda  cannot  be  procured,  a  mixture  of  three 
parts  borax,  and  two  and  a  half  parts  sulphate  of  magnesia, 
in  twenty  parts  of  water,  may  be  used  with  good  effect. 

Fly- Papers. 

Sticky  or  adhesive  fly-papers  are  to  be  discouraged,  as 
it  is  a  cruelty  to  subject  even  flies  to  the  long  struggles  and 
slow  death  caused  by  it.  Such  papers,  however,  are  occa- 
sionally sold,  and  are  prepared  by  coating  paper  with  fac- 
titious bird-lime.  Or  the  bird-lime  is  smeared  upon  wooden 
sticks  standing  in  a  base,  for  instance,  a  flower-pot,  when 
they  will  adhere  to  it.  A  better  plan  is  to  mix  some  poison 
with  the  adhesive  mass,  but  care  should  be  taken  lest  chil- 
dren get  at  it.  Cooley  gives  the  following  formula:  Treacle, 
honey,  or  moist  sugar  mixed  with  about  l-12th  of  their 
weight  of  orpiment  (yellow  tersulphide  of  arsenic).  Redwood's 
formula  is:  Small  quassia  chips,  £  oz. ;  water,  1  pint;  boil  10 
minutes,  strain,  and  add  4  oz.  of  treacle.  Flies  will  drink 
this  with  avidity,  and  are  soon  destroyed  by  it. 


50  THE  WoEKSflOP  COMPANION. 

Freezing  Mixtures. 

The  temperatures  here  given  are  Fahrenheit.  When  ice  or 
snow  are  not  to  be  had  and  it  is  desired  to  cool  any  solid, 
liquid  or  gas,  a  good  freezing  mixture  is  the  simplest  method 
ot  accomplishing  the  object.  The  following  mixtures  are  the 
most  convenient  and  efficient: 

1.  Nitrate  of  ammonia,  carbonate  of  soda  and  water,  equal 
parts  by  weight.     The  thermometer  sinks  57°. 

2.  Phosphate  of  soda,  9  parts;  nitrate  of  ammonia,  6  parts; 
diluted  nitric  acid,   (acid  1  part,  water  2  parts,)  4  parts. 
Reduces  the  temperature  71°  or  from  50°  to  —  21°. 

3.  Sal  ammoniac,  5  parts;  nitrate  of  potash,  5  parts;  sul- 
phate of  soda,  8  parts;  water,  16  parts.     Reduces  the  tem- 
perature 46°  or  from  70°  to  24°.     This  is  one  of  the  cheapest, 
most  readily  procured,  and  most  convenient  of  mixtures. 

Freezing  mixtures  are  often  used  when  it  is  required  to 
produce  a  greater  degree  of  cold  than  can  be  obtained  by 
the  mere  application  of  ice.  When  ice  is  at  hand,  as  it  gen- 
erally is  in  this  country,  the  following  should  be  used: 

1.  Finely  pounded  ice,  2  parts;  salt,  1  part.     This  mixture 
reduces  the  temperature  to  5°. 

2.  Finely  pounded  ice,   2  parts;  crystallized  chloride   of 
calcium,  3  parts.    Reduces  the  temperature  from  32°  to  —  40°. 

3.  Finely  pounded  ice,  7  parts;  diluted  nitric  acid,  4  parts. 
Reduces  the  temperature  from  32°  to  —  30°. 

In  every  case  the  materials  should  be  kept  as  cool  as  pos- 
sible. Thus  the  ice  should  be  pounded  in  a  cooled  mortar 
with  a  cooled  pestle,  and  the  mixture  should  be  made  in  ves- 
sels previously  cooled.  By  attention  to  these  particulars  it 
is  easy  to  freeze  mercury  at  any  time  by  means  of  these 
simple  and  easily  practiced  methods,  though,  of  course,  tho 
modern  laboratory  is  provided  with  agencies  of  far  greater 
cooling  power. 

Fumigating  Pastils. 

For  the  purpose  of  deodorizing  a  room  in  which  there  is 
an  offensive  smell,  common  coffee  berries,  and  even  rags  or 
brown  paper,  if  properly  burned,  will  serve  admirably.  The 
smoke  from  these  substances  not  only  neutralizes  the  odors, 
but  really  acts  as  a  disinfectant  to  a  slight  extent.  In  burn- 
ing coffee,  paper  or  rags  for  this  purpose,  care  must  be  taken 
to  prevent  them  from  burning  too  freely.  If  they  burn  with 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  51 

a  free,  bright  flame,  the  proper  effect  will  not  be  produced, 
They  should  be  allowed  to  smoulder  quietly,  and  they  do 
this  best  when  they  are  thrown  on  hot  coala,  or  a  hot  shovel 
and  set  on  fire. 

An  excellent  substitute  for  pastils  is  heavy  brown  paper, 
which  has  been  dipped  in  a  solution  of  nitre  and  then  dried. 
This  burns  freely  without  name,  and  if  it  be  dipped  in  a 
solution  of  benzoin,  the  odor  is  very  pleasant.  The  best 
thing,  however,  is  pastils.  They  are  easily  made  as  follows : 

1.  Paris  Formula. — Benzoin,  2   oz. ;  balsam  of  tolu  and 
yellow  sandal  wood,  of  each  4  drachms;  nitre,  2   drachms; 
labdanum,  1  drachm;  charcoal,  6  oz.     Reduce  to  powder,  mix 
thoroughly  and  make  into  a  stiff  paste  with  gum  tragacaiith. 
Form  into  small  cones  and  dry  them  in  the  air. 

2.  Formula  of  Henry  and  Guibourt. — Powdered  benzoin,  1G 
parts;    balsam  of  tolu  and  powdered  sandal  wood,  each   4 
parts;  charcoal  powder,   48  parts;  powdered  tragacaiith  and 
labdanum,  each  1  part;  powdered  nitre  and  gum  arabic,  eacli 
2  parts;  make  into  a  paste  with  12  parts  cinnamon  water,  form 
into  cones  and  dry. 

3.  The  following  formula  is  somewhat  complex,  but  gives 
very  fine  results :  Take  the  charcoal  of  any  light  wood,  200 
parts;  gum  benzoin,  100  parts;  powdered  sandal  wood,   50 
parts;  balsam  of  tolu,  50  parts;   Storax  (Styrax  calamita),  50 
parts;  gum  olibanum,  50  parts;   cascarilla  bark,  100  parts; 
cloves,  40  parts;    cinnamon  (Ceylon),  40  parts;    potassium 
nitrate,  75  parts.      Reduce  the  ingredients  to  powder,   and 
mix  them  with  oil  of  Ceylon  cinnamon,  5  parts;  oil  of  cloves, 
5  parts;  oil  of  lavender,  5  parts;  balsam  of  Peru,  10  parts; 
camphor,  powdered,  1  part.      Then  add  mucilage  of  traga- 
caiith sufficient  to  make  a  mass  which  is  to  be  formed  into 
conical  cylinders  about  £  to  1  inch  high,  and  ending  at  the 
bottom  in  three  projections.     Dry  them  in  a  warm  place. 

Gilding. 

A  covering  of  gold,  when  judiciously  applied  to  the  proper 
parts  of  any  object  adds  greatly  to  its  beauty,  and  in  the  case 
of  metals,  such  as  steel,  copper,  silver,  etc. ,  the  gold,  being 
capable  of  resisting  the  action  of  most  chemical  agents,  proves 
a  very  perfect  protector  against  corrosion.  Metals  are  now 
generally  gilt  by  means  of  the  electrotype  process,  though 
the  old  method  by  means  of  an  amalgam,  is  still  used  in  some 


52  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

cases.  Stamped  goods,  such  as  cheap  jewelry,  are  also 
made  out  of  sheets  of  metal  which,  after  being  heavily  gilt,  are 
rolled  out  thin,  the  gold  being  thus  spread  over  an  astonish- 
ing extent  of  surface.  For  gilding  leather,  wood,  etc. ,  gold 
in  the  form  of  leaf  or  powder  is  generally  used. 

Gilding  with  Gold-Leaf. — There  are  various  methods  appli- 
cable, according  to  the  different  circumstances  and  the 
character  of  the  objects  to  be  gilded.  Book-binders  use  gold- 
leaf  in  two  ways — to  gild  on  the  edge,  and  to  place  gold  let- 
ters on  the  binding.  To  gild  on  the  edge,  the  edge  is  smoothly 
cut,  put  in  a  strong  press,  scraped  so  as  to  make  it  solid,  and 
the  well- beaten  white  of  an  egg  or  albumen  put  on  thinly; 
the  gold-leaf  is  then  put  on  before  the  albumen  is  dry;  it  "is 
pressed  down  with  cotton,  and  when  dry  polished  with  an 
agate  polisher.  To  put  on  the  lettering,  the  place  where  the 
letters  are  to  appear  is  coated  with  albumen,  and  after  it  is 
dry,  the  type  to  be  used  is  heated  to  about  the  boiling  point 
of  water,  the  gold-leaf  put  on,  either  on  the  book  or  on  the 
type,  and  then  placed  on  the  spot  where  the  lettering  is 
desired,  when  the  gold-leaf  will  adhere  by  the  heat  of  the 
type,  while  the  excess  of  gold-leaf  loosely  around  is  rubbed 
off  with  a  tuft  of  cotton. 

To  do  printing  with  gold-leaf,  the  sheet  to  be  printed  on  is 
pinned  to  the  tympan  of  a  hand-press,  and  it  is  first  printed 
with  ink  of  any  color,  or  with  varnish,  and  then  the  type  is 
covered  with  a  large  sheet  of  paper,  the  gold-leaf  laid  on, 
and  the  tympan  laid  down  agp.in,  slowly  and  carefully,  so  as 
not  to  disturb  the  gold-leaf  by  motions  of  the  air;  then  the 
pressure  is  again  applied,  when  the  gold-leaf  will  stick  to 
the  printed  sheet,  and  the  surplus  can  be  rubbed  off  with  a 
tuft  of  cotton.  Ordinary  printing  in  gold,  silver  and  bronze, 
however,  is  done  with  powdered  metal  and  not  with  leaf. 
The  printing  is  Jirst  done  with  a  varnish  specially  made  for 
the  purpose;  after  the  impression  has  been  taken,  the  sheets 
are  allowed  to  lie  a  short  time  so  as  to  dry  a  little,  but  not 
completely,  and  while  still  tacky  the  gold,  silver  or  bronze 
powder  is  sprinkled  over  the  letters.  The  powder  adheres 
to  the  varnish,  and  the  surplus  is  easily  removed  by  means 
of  a  tuft  of  cotton. 

In  gilding  picture-frames  with  gold-leaf  there  are  two 
methods;  one  with  the  ordinary  gold  size,  the  other  with 
varnish.  The  latter  method  does  not  allow  polishing,  but  .is 


THE  WOBFSHOP  COMPANION.  53 

water-proof;  the  former  is  not.  The  main  point  is  to  have  a 
well  prepared  ground-work  of  say  white  lead  and  drying  oil, 
smoothed  down  properly;  then  follow  several  coats  of  cal- 
cined white  lead  in  linseed  oil  and  turpentine,  with  intervals 
of  at  least  twenty-four  hours  between  each  coat,  which  must 
be  carefully  smoothed  off  with  pumice-stone  and  fine  emery- 
paper.  Then  the  gold  size  is  applied,  which  may  be  made  from 
the  sediment  that  collects  at  the  bottom  of  the  pot  in  which 
painters  wash  their  brushes;  this  is  thoroughly  ground  and 
strained.  When  the  gold  size  coat  is  sufficiently  dry  so  as  to  be 
a  little  sticky,  apply  the  gold-leaf  and  press  it  on  with  cotton 
or  a  soft  brush;  after  a  few  days'  hardening  it  is  varnished 
with  spirits  or  oil  varnish.  This  gives  a  water-proof  gild- 
ing, but  ordinarily  picture-frames  are  gilded  with  a  gold  size 
containing  no  oil.  It  is  made  of  finely  ground  sal  ammoniac, 
to  which  is  added  a  very  little  beef  suet;  this  is  mixed  with 
a  pallet-knife,  with  parchment  size  dissolved  in  water,  so  as 
to  flow  from  the  knife  when  hot.  The  frame  may  be  pre- 
pared first  with  a  few  coats  of  Paris  white  and  glue-water, 
rubbed  down  smoothly,  and  finally  apply  the  size,  which 
must  not  be  too  thick,  as  then  it  will  chip  off,  and  if  too  thin 
it  will  not  have  sufficient  body.  The  most  difficult  part  in 
all  these  operations  of  gold-leaf  gilding,  is  the  application  of 
the  gold-leaf,  which  requires  much  practice,  judgment,  and 
great  care,  but  with  some  attention  to  little  details  it  can  be 
easily  learned.  There  ought  to  be  no  draught  at  the  place 
of  operation  and  the  operator  ought  to  avoid  allowing  his 
breath  to  blow  upoa  the  gold  leaves,  as  they  are  so  thin  and 
light  that  the  least  breath  of  air  causes  them  to  fly  about — 
worse  than  feathers.  Turn  the  gold  leaves — one  at  a  time — 
put  of  the  book  upon  'the  leather  cushion;  with  the  gilding- 
knife  you  may  lift  any  leaf  and  carry  it  to  a  convenient  place 
to  cut  it  into  the  sizes  required.  Blow  gently  on  the  center 
of  the  leaf,  and  it  will  at  once  spread  out  and  lie  flat  without 
any  wrinkles,  then  cut  it  by  passing  the  edge  of  the  knife 
over  it  until  divided.  Place  the  work  to  be  gilded  as  near  as 
practicable  in  a  horizontal  position,  and  with  a  long  camels'- 
hair  pencil,  dipj^ed  in  a  mixture  of  water  with  a  little  brandy, 
go  over  as  much  surface  as  the  piece  of  gold  is  to  cover;  then 
take  up  the  gold  from  the  cushion  with  a  tip.  Drawing  it 
over  the  forehead  and  cheek  will  dampen  it  sufficiently  to 
make  the  gold  adhere.  This  must  then  be  carefully  trans- 


54  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

ferred  to  its  place  on  the  work,  and  by  gently  breathing  on 
it,  it  will  adhere.  Take  care  that  the  part  to  which  it  is 
applied  be  sufficiently  wet,  so  that  the  gold-leaf  will  not 
crack.  Proceed  in  this  way,  a  little  at  a  time,  not  attempt- 
ing to  cover  too  much  at  once.  If  any  cracks  or  flaws 
appear,  immediately  apply  another  piece  of  gold-leaf  over 
it — large  enough  to  cover  the  crack.  If  occasionally  the  gold 
does  not  appear  to  adhere,  on  account  of  the  ground  having 
become  too  dry,  run  a  wet  pencil  close  to  the  edge  of  tho 
gold,  so  as  to  allow  water  to  penetrate  under  the  gold-leaf. 
When  the  work  is  dry  (say  in  ten  or  twelve  hours),  it  may  be 
burnished  with  an  agate  tool,  taking  care  to  first  remove  all 
the  dust  from  the  tool  as  well  as  from  the  gilded  surface. 

Ornamental  lines  of  gilding  may  be  painted  on  wood  and 
other  articles  by  means  of  a  fine  camel-hair  brush,  using 
shell  gold,  which  may  be  had  at  the  artists'  supply  stores. 
This  forms  a  very  good  method  of  ornamenting  work  done 
by  the  scroll  saw,  or  carved  work,  such  as  frames,  etc. 

Gilding  Steel — Polished  steel  may  be  beautifully  gilded  by 
means  of  the  ethereal  solution  of  gold.  Dissolve  pure  gold 
in  aqua  regia,  evaporate  gently  to  dryness,  so  as  to  drive  off 
the  superfluous  acid,  re-dissolve  in  water  and  add  three  times 
its  bulk  of  sulphuric  ether.  Allow  to  stand  for  twenty -four 
hours  in  a  stoppered  bottle  and  the  ethereal  solution  of 
gold  will  float  at  top.  Polished  steel  dipped  in  this  is  at 
once  beautifully  gilded,  and  by  tracing  patterns  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  metal  with  any  kind  of  varnish,  beautiful  devices 
in  plain  metal  and  gilt  will  be  produced.  For  other  metals 
the  electro  process  is  the  best. 

Glass  Working. 

Glass  is  usually  brought  into  shape  by  being  moulded  or 
blown.  Simple  and  complete  directions  for  blowing  small 
articles  may  be  found  in  the  Young  Scientist,  vol.  I,  p.  37. 

There  are  a  few  other  operations,  however,  which  are  con 
stantly  needed  by  the  amateur  and  which  we  will  describe. 

Cutting  Glass. — For  cutting  flat  glass,  such  as  window- 
panes,  and  for  cutting  rounds  or  ovals  out  of  flat  glass,  the 
diamond  is  the  best  tool;  and,  if  the  operator  has  no  diamond 
it  will  always  pay  to  carry  the  job  to  a  glazier  rather  than 
waste  time  and  make  a  j^oor  job  by  other  and  inferior  means. 
When,  however,  it  is  required  to  cut  off  a  very  little  from  a 


THE  -WOMSHO?  COMf>ANM.  S5 

circle  or  oval,  the  diamond  is  not  available,  except  in  vert 
skilful  hands.  In  this  case  a  pair  of  pliers  softened  by  heat- 
ing, or  very  dull  scissors  is  the  best  tool,  and  the  cutting  i? 
best  performed  under  water.  A  little  practice  will  enable 
the  operator  to  shape  a  small  round  or  oval  with  great 
rapidity,  etise  and  precision.  When  bottles  or  flasks  are  to 
be  cut/ the  diamond  is  still  the  best  tool  in  skilful  hands; 
but  ordinary  operators  will  succeed  best  with  pastils,  or  a 
rod  hot  poker  with  a  pointed  end.  We  prefer  the  latter,  as 
being  the  most  easily  obtained  and  the  most  efficient;  and  we 
have  never  found  any  difficulty  in  cutting  off  broken  flasks 
so  as  to  make  dishes,  or  to  carry  a  cut  spirally  round  a  long 
bottle  so  as  to  cut  it  into  the  form  of  a  corkscrew.  And,  by 
the  way,  when  so  cut,  glass  exhibits  considerable  elasticity, 
nnd  the  spiral  may  be  elongated  like  a  ringlet.  The  process 
is  very  simple.  The  line  of  the  cut  should  be  marked  by 
chalk  or  by  pasting  a  thin  strip  of  paper  alongside  of  it; 
then  make  a  file  mark  to  commence  the  cut;  apply  the  hot 
iron  and  a  crack  will  start;  and  this  crack  will  follow  the 
iron  wherever  we  choose  to  lead  it.  In  this  way  jars  are 
easily  made  out  of  old  bottles,  and  broken  vessels  of  different 
kinds  may  be  cut  up  into  new  forms.  Flat  glass  may  also 
be  cut  into  the  most  intricate  and  elegant  forms.  The  red 
hot  iron  is  fa*  superior  to  strings  wet  with  turpentine,  fric- 
tion, etc. 

Drilling  Glass.  -For  drilling  holes  in  glass,  a  common  str°* 
drill,  well  made  and  well  tempered,  is  the  best  tool.  The 
steel  should  be  forged  at  a  low  temperature,  so  as  to  be  sure 
not  to  burn  it,  and  then  tempered  as  hard  as  possible  in  a 
bath  of  salt  water  that  has  been  well  boiled.  Such  a  drill 
will  go  through  glass  very  rapidly  if  kept  well  moistened 
with  turpentine  in  which  some  camphor  has  been  dissolved. 
Dilute  sulphuric  acid  is  equally  good,  if  not  better.  It  is 
stated,  that  at  Berlin,  glass  castings  for  pump-barrels,  etc., 
are  drilled,  planed  and  bored,  like  iron  ones,  and  in  the  same 
lathes  and  machines,  by  the  aid  of  sulphuric  acid.  A  little 
practice  with  these  different  plans  will  enable  the  operator  to 
cut  and  work  glass  as  easily  as  brass  or  iron. 

Turning  Glass  -in  the  Lathe. — Black  diamonds  are  now  so 
easily  procured  that  they  are  the  best  tools  for  turning, 
planing  or  boring  glass  where  much  work  is  to  be  done. 
With  a  good  diamond  a  skilful  worker  can  turn  a  lens  roughly 


56  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

out  of  a  piece  of  flat  glass  in  a  few  seconds,  so  that  it  will  be 
very  near  the  right  shape, 

A  splinter  of  diamond  may  be  very  readily  fastened  in  the 
end  of  a  piece  of  stout  brass  wire  so  that  it  may  be  used  for 
drilling  or  turning  glass.  Bore  a  hole  the  size  of  the  splinter 
and  so  deep  that  the  diamond  may  be  inserted  beyond  its 
largest  part,  but  leaving  the  point  projecting.  Then,  by 
means  of  a  pair  of  stout  pliers,  it  is  easy  to  press  the  end  of 
the  brass  so  that  it  will  fill  in  around  the  diamond  and  hold 
it  tight.  Diamonds  are  sometimes  cemented  in  such  holes 
by  means  of  shellac,  or  even  solder  run  around  them.  This 
answers  for  some  purposes,  but  not  for  drilling  or  turning. 

Fitting  Glass  Stoppws. — Very  few  stoppers  fit  properly  the 
bottles  for  which  they  are  intended.  The  stoppers  and  bot- 
tles are  ground  with  copper  cones,  fed  with  sand  and  made 
to  revolve  rapidly  in  a  lathe,  and  the  common  stock  are  not 
specially  fitted.  To  fit  a  stopper  to  a  bottle  that  has  not  been 
ground,  use  emery  or  coarse  sand  kept  constantly  wet  with 
water,  and  replaced  with  fresh  as  fast  as  it  is  reduced  to 
powder.  When  all  the  surface  has  become  equally  rough,  it 
is  considered  a  sign  that  the  glass  has  been  ground  to  the 
proper  shape,  as  until  that  time  the  projecting  parts  only 
show  traces  of  erosion.  This  is  the  longest  and  hardest  part 
of  the  work,  as  after  that  the  glass  simply  needs  finishing 
and  polishing.  For  that  purpose  emery  only  can  be  used, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  material  can  be  obtained  of  any  de- 
gree of  fineness,  in  this  respect  differing  from  sand.  Other- 
wise the  operation  is  the  same  as  before,  the  emery  being 
always  kept  moistened,  and  replaced  when  worn  out.  The 
grinding  is  continued  until  both  the  neck  of  the  bottle  and 
the  stopper  acquire  a  uniform  finish,  of  a  moderate  degree  of 
smoothness,  and  until  the  stopper  fits  so  accurately  that  no, 
shake  can  be  felt  in  it,  even  though  it  be  not  twisted  irt 
tightly. 

Glass  Stopper's. — To  remove  glass  stoppers  when  tightly 
fixed,  it  has  been  recommended  to  apply  a  cloth  wet  in  hot 
water.  This  is  an  inconvenient  and  frequently  unsuccessful 
method.  The  great  object  is  to  expand  the  neck  of  the 
bottle  so  as  to  loosen  it  on  the  stopper.  If,  however,  the 
latter  be  heated  and  expanded  equally  with  the  former,  the 
desired  effect  is  not  produced;  and  this  is  often  the  case  in 
applying  hot  water.  By  holding  the  neck  of  the  bottle  about 


THE  WOBKSifOP  COMPANION.  *7 

half  an  inch  above  the  flame  of  a  lamp  or  candle,  for  a  few 
seconds,  we  have  never  failed  in  the  most  obstinate  cases. 
The  hands  should  be  wrapped  in  a  towel,  and  great  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  let  the  flame  touch  the  glass,  as  this 
might  cause  it  to  crack.  The  bottle  should  be  kept  rapidly 
turning,  during  the  operation,  so  as  to  bring  all  parts  of  the 
neck  equally  under  the  influence  of  the  heat,  when  it  will  be 
i-apidly  expanded  and  the  stopper  may  be  withdrawn  by  a 
steady  pull  and  twist.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  tap  the 
stopper  lightly  with  a  piece  of  wood;  the  jar  is  very  apt  to 
loosen  the  stopper.  To  twist  the  stopper,  make,  in  a  piece 
of  wood,  an  oblong  hole  into  which  the  stopper  will  just  fit. 

Glass,  To  Powder. — Powdered  glass  is  frequently  used  in- 
stead of  paper,  cloth,  cotton  or  sand  for  filtering  varnishes, 
acids,  etc.  It  is  not  soluble  or  corrodible.  Sand,  if  purely 
silicious,  would  be  better,  but  such  sand  is  difficult  to  get; 
it  too  often  contains  matters  which  are  easily  corroded  or 
dissolved.  Powdered  glass  when  glued  to  paper  is  also  used 
for  polishing  wood  and  other  materials.  It  cuts  rapidly  and 
cleanly,  and  is  better  than  sand  for  most  purposes.  Glass  is 
easily  pulverized  after  being  heated  red  hot  and  plunged  into 
cold  water.  It  cracks  in  every  direction,  becomes  hard  and 
brittle,  and  breaks  with  keenly  cutting  edges.  After  being 
pounded  in  "a  mortar  it  may  be  divided  into  powders  of  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  fineness  by  being  sifted  through  lawn  sieves. 

Glass,  Imitation  Ground — Put  a  piece  of  putty  in  muslin, 
twist  the  fabric  tight,  and  tie  it  into  the  shape  of  a  pad;  well 
clean  the  glass  first,  and  then  putty  it  all  over.  The  putty 
will  exude  sufficiently  through  the  muslin  to  render  the  stain 
opaque.  Let  it  dry  hard,  and  then  varnish.  If  a  pattern  is 
required,  cut  it  out  in  paper  as  a  stencil;  place  it  so  as  not 
to  slip,  and  proceed  as  above,  removing  the  stencil  when 
finished.  If  there  should  be  any  objection  to  the  existence 
of  the  clear  spaces,  cover  with  slightly  opaque  varnish.  In 
this  way  very  neat  and  cheap  signs  may  be  painted  on  glass 
doors. 

^rlass  Ware,  Packing. — Every  one  has  this  duty  to  perfonf 
occasionally,  and  it  is  well  to  know  how  it  should  be  done. 
The  safety  of  glass  articles  packed  together  in  a  box  does  not. 
depend  so  much  upon  the  quantity  of  packing  material  used, 
as  upon  the  fact  that  no  two  pieces  of  glass  come  into  actual 
contact.  In  packing  plates,  a  single  straw  placed  betrvveej) 


63  THE  WOKKSHOP  ^  'OMPANION. 

two  of  them  will  prevent  them  from  breaking  each  other.  In 
packing  bottles  in  a  case,  such  as  the  collecting  case  of  the 
microscopist,  and  the  test  case  of  the  chemist,  rubber  rings 
slipped  over  each,  will  be  found  the  best  and  handiest  pack- 
ing material.  They  have  this  great  advantage  that  they  do 
not  give  rise  to  dust. 

Washing  Glass  Vessels. — In  many  operations  where  glass 
vessels  are  used,  success  will  depend  upon  having  the  glass 
perfectly  clean.  "Upon  this  subject  a  correspondent  of  the 
Chemical  News  says:  Such  a  subject  may  seem  too  simple,  but 
yet  the  more  I  see  students  at  their  work,  the  more  I  am  im- 
pressed with  the  fact  that  but  few  know  how  to  wash  a  beaker- 
glass  clean.  Some  time  since  I  took  beakers  from  various 
students  in  my  laboratory  (which  they  had  washed  and  put 
away),  and  held  them  under  a  powerful  stream  of  water  until 
they  were  thoroughly  wet.  On  taking  them  from  under  the 
spout,  in  almost  every  case  the  water  ran  off  the  glass  in 
spots,  showing  that  the  glass  was  greasy.  The  best  thing  to 
wash  beakers,  etc.,  with,  according  to  my  experience,  is  sand- 
soap.  Naturally,  the  sand  must  not  be  sharp.  The  soaps 
containing  infusorial  earth  are  most  excellent  for  this  pur- 
pose. Borax  soap  is  also  very  efficacious.  A  piece  of  board 
about  20  cm.  long,  15  cm.  wide,  and  4  cm.  thick,  should  be 
screwed  on  to  the  right  (inside)  of  the  sink.  In  this  block  a 
rectangular  hole,  about  2  cm.  deep  and  1  cm.  smaller  than 
the  section  of  the  soap  when  stood  on  its  long  end,  is  to  bo 
cut.  The  bottom  of  the  cake  of  soap  is  then  whittled  away 
so  that  it  fits  tightly  in  the  hole.  It  is  now  moistened  am  1 
pushed  into  the  aperture,  where  it  remains  tightly  iixed.  13y 
wetting  the  right  hand  thoroughly,  and  rubbing  on  this  soap 
ridge,  a  good  lather  is  made.  With  the  soapy  hand  the  glass 
is  rubbed  and  washed  until,  on  taking  it  from  under  the 
rtivitm,  no  oily  spots  appear,  the  glass  appearing  wet  all  over. 
The  beaker  is  then  dried  with  a  good  towel  ("  glass  towel ''), 
jind  finally  polished  with  a  piece  of  chamois  or  kid  leather. 
The  final  polish  with  kid  is  necessary,  since  the  best  towel 
leaves  fibres  on  the  glass.  In  cleaning  test  tubes,  it  is  onlv 
necessary  to  rub  the  probang  on  the  soap. 

For  cleaning  flasks  and  bottles  which  have  been  soiled 
with  varnishes  or  resins,  or  for  cleaning  the  glass  slides  used 
for  microscopic  objects,  proceed  as  follows:  Remove  all  the 
resin,  varnislij  etc.,  possible  by  means  of  Jiea.tr 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  59 

scraping,  and  a  solution  of  soda  or  potash.  When  the  article 
is  as  clean  as  possible,  place  it  in  strong  sulphuric  acid,  to 
which  must  be  added  as  much  powdered  bichromate  of 
potassa. 

The  chromic  acid  will  quickly  destroy  all  organic  matter, 
and  the  article  when  washed  in  pure  water  will  be  found  per- 
fectly clean. 

Grass. 

Grass,  To  Shtin  Dried. — There  are  few  prettier  ornaments, 
and  none  more  economical  and  lasting,  than  bouquets  of 
dried  grasses  mingled  with  the  various  unchangeable  flowers. 
They  have  but  one  fault,  and  that  is  this,  the  want  of  other 
colors  besides  yellow  and  drab  or  brown.  To  vary  their 
shade  artificially,  these  flowers  are  sometimes  dyed  green. 
This,  however,  is  in  bad  taste  and  unnatural.  The  best  effect 
is  produced  by  blending  rose  and  red  tints  together,  and  with 
a  very  little  pale  blue  with  the  grasses  and  flowers  as  they 
dry  naturally.  The  best  means  of  dyeing  dried  leaves,  flow- 
ers and  grasses,  is  to  dip  them  into  the  alcoholic  solution  of 
the  various  compounds  of  aniline.  Some  of  these  have  a 
beautiful  rose  shade;  others  red,  blue,  orange  and  purpte. 
The  depth  of  color  can  be  regulated  by  diluting,  if  necessary, 
the  original  dyes,  with  alcohol,  down  to  the  shade  desired. 
When  taken  out  of  the  dye,  they  should  be  exposed  to  the 
air  to  dry  off  the  alcohol.  They  then  require  arranging  or 
rotting  into  form,  as,  when  wet,  the  petals  and  fine  filaments 
have  a  tendency  to  cling  together.  A  pink  saucer,  as  sold 
by  most  druggists,  will  supply  enough  rose  dye  for  two 
ordinary  bouquets.  The  pink  saucer  yields  the  best  rose  dye 
by  washing  it  off  with  water  and  lemon  juice.  The  aniline 
dyes  yield  the  best  violet,  mauve  and  purple  colors. 

Guns. 

The  excellence  of  a  gun  depends  very  much  upon  the  form 
and  finish  of  the  interior  of  the  barrels,  and  as  the  owner 
may,  if  he  chooses,  work  the  inside  of  his  gun  over  so  as  tc 
improve  it,  we  give  a  few  directions. 

Freeing. — It  has  been  found  that  a  perfect  cylindrical  tuoe 
is  not  the  best  form  for  a  gun  barrel.  Guns  shoot  most 
closely  and  strongly  when  the  bore  is  very  slightly  enlarged 
towards  the  muzzle.  This  enlargement  is  easily  effected  by 
means  of  very  fine  emery  paper  wrapped  aboutTa  round  r«<3 


60  THE  WOBKSHOP  COMPANION. 

and  used  with  a  little  oil.  The  freeing  may  extend  to  about 
one-third  of  the  length  of  the  barrel,  and  the  gun  should  be 
tested  from  time  to  time  during  the  process,  so  as  to  get  the 
very  best  results.  The  testing  is  done  by  firing  a  standard 
charge  of  powder  and  shot  at  a  sheet  of  brown  paper  and 
noting  the  number  of  pellets  that  are  put  into  a  circle  of 
given  size,  and  also  the  force  with  which  they  are  driven  into 
a  board.  For  ordinary  bird  guns,  a  30-inch  circle  at  forty 
yards,  makes  a  good  target. 

To  Keep  Barrels  from  Rusting. — One  of  the  great  difficulties 
which  the  sportsman  has  to  contend  against  is  the  rusting  of 
his  barrels,  even  when  protected  by  the  best  browning.  The 
alkaline  matter  existing  in  snow  and  in  rain,  under  certain 
conditions  of  the  atmosphere,  works  through  the  best  coat- 
ings, and  reaches  the  iron.  Varnish,  as  ordinarily  laid  on, 
is  objectionable,  as  it  gives  a  gun  a  "Brummagem"  look. 
The  best  plan  is  the  following:  Heat  the  barrels  to  the  tem- 
perature of  boiling  water  (not  any  hotter,  or  you  may  injure 
them),  and  rub  them  with  the  best  copal  varnish,  giving  them 
a  plentiful  coating.  Let  them  remain  hot  for  half  an  hour, 
and  then  wipe  them  clean  with  a  soft  rag.  In  this  way  you 
can  get  enough  of  the  varnish  into  the  pores  of  the  metal  to 
act  as  a  preservative,  and,  at  the  same  time,  no  one  would 
suspect  that  the  barrels  had  ever  been  touched  with  varnish. 
We  have  applied  boiled  oil,  beeswax,  paraffin,  and  some 
other  substances,  in  the  same  way,  and  obtained  good  results ; 
but  on  the  whole,  we  find  nothing  better  than  good  copal 
varnish. 

Browning  Gun  Barrels.—  To  obtain  a  handsomely  browned 
barrel,  we  must  not  only  use  a  first  rate  recipe,  but  we  must 
apply  a  good  deal  of  skill  and  no  small  amount  of  hard  work. 
When  barrels  are  imperfectly  browned,  the  fault  lies  more 
frequently  in  defective  work  than  in  the  use  of  a  poor  recipe. 

The  following  are  the  directions  given  in  the  United 
Statos  Ordnance  Manual,  and.it  is  to  be  presumed  that 
these  are  the  directions  that  are  followed  in  the  government 
armories. 

Materials  for  Browning  Mixture. — Spirits  of  wine,  Ifc  oz. ; 
tincture  of  steel,  l£  oz. ;  corrosive  sublimate,  1^  oz. ;  sweet 
spirits  of  nitre,  l£  oz. ;  blue  vitriol,  1  oz. ;  nitric  acid,  2  oz. 
To  be  mixed  and  dissolved  in  one  "quart  of  warm  water,  the 
tq  be  kept  in  glass  bottles  and  not  in  earthen  jugs. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  61 

Previous  to  commencing  the  operation  of  browning,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  barrel  or  other  part  should  be  made  quite 
bright  with  emery  or  a  fine  smooth  file  (but  not  burnished), 
after  which  it  must  be  carefully  cleaned  from  all  greasiness;  a 
small  quantity  of  powdered  lime  rubbed  well  over  every  part 
of  the  barrel,  is  the  best  for  this  purpose,  but  in  the  case  of 
old  work,  which  is  very  oily  or  greasy,  or  when  the  oil  or 
grease  has  become  dried  or  gummed  on  the  surface,  the  bar- 
rels must  be  first  washed  with  a  strong  solution  of  potash  in 
warm  water.  After  this  the  lime  may  be  applied.  Plugs  of 
wood  are  then  to  be  put  into  the  muzzle  of  the  barrel  and 
into  the  vent,  and  the  mixture  applied  to  every  part  with  a 
clean  sponge  or  rag.  The  barrel  is  then  to  be  exposed  to  the 
air  for  twenty-four  hours,  after  which  time  it  is  to  be  well 
rubbed  over  with  a  steel  scratch-card  or  scratch-brush,  until 
the  rust  is  entirely  removed;  the  mixture  may  then  be  ap- 
plied again,  as  before,  and  in  a  few  hours  the  barrel  will  be 
sufficiently  corroded  for  the  operation  of  scratch-brushing  to 
be  repeated.  The  same  process  of  scratching  off  the  rust  and 
applying  the  mixture  is  to  be  repeated  twice  or  three  times  a 
day  for  four  or  five  days,  by  which  time  the  barrel  will  be  of 
a  very  dark  brown  color. 

When  Jbhe  barrel  is  sufficiently  brown,  and  the  rust  has 
been  carefully  removed  from  every  part,  about  a  quart  of 
boiling  water  should  be  poured  over  every  part  of  the  bar- 
rel, in  order  that  the  action  of  the  acid  mixture  upon  the 
barrel  may  be  destroyed,  and  the  rust  thereby  prevented 
from  rising  again. 

The  barrel,  when  cold,  should  afterwards  be  rubbed  over 
with  linseed  oil  or  sperm  oil.  It  is  particularly  directed  that 
the  steel  scratch-card  or  scratch-brush  be  used  in  the  place 
of  a  hard  hair-brush,  otherwise  the  browning  will  not  be 
durable  nor  have  a  good  appearance. 

If  the  work  be  handled  with  unclean  or  greasy  hands,  im-r 
perfectly  browned  places  will  show  where  tlie  hands  have 
touched  the  barrels. 

Varnish  for  Browned  Iron. — Shellac,  1  oz. ;  dragon's  blood, 
3-16ths  of  an  oz. ;  alcohol,  1  quart.  ^ 

Very  complete  directions  for  browning  gun-barrels  m^j 
be  found  in  a  little  book  called  "Shooting  on  the  Wing," 
which  may  be  obtainect  froin  the  publishers  of  this  yoj- 
mne. 


62  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

Handles,  To  Fasten. 

The  handles  of  knives,  forks,  and  similar  articles,  that 
have  come  off'  by  being  put  in  hot  water,  may  be  fastened  on 
in  the  following  manner: 

1.  Take  powdored  resin  and  mix  with  it  a  small  quantity 
of  powdered  chalk,  whiting  or  slaked  lime.     Fill  the  hole 
in  the  handle  with  the  mixture,  heat  the  tang  of  the  knife  or 
fork  and  thrust  in.     When  cold  it  will  be  securely  fastened. 

2.  Take  one  Ib.  resin  and  8  oz.   sulphur,  melt  together, 
form  into  bars,  or  when  cold  reduce  to  powder.     One  part  of 
the  powder  is  to  be  mixed  with  half  a  part  of  iron  filings, 
brick  dust  or  fine  sand;  fill  the  cavity  of  the  handle  with  the 
mixture  and  insert  the  tang,  previously  heated. 

3.  Brick  dust  and  powdered  resin,  make  a  very  good  com- 
position.    It  may  be  melted  and  poured  into  the  handle,  or 
powdered  and  then  put  in,  and  the  tang  inserted  warm. 

4.  Chopped  hair,  flax,  hemp  or  tow,  mixed  with  powdered 
resin  and  applied  as  above. 

5.  One  pound  colophony,  8  oz.   sulphur;  melt,  and  when 
cool  reduce  to  powder.    'Mix  with  this  some  fine  sand  or 
brick  dust,  and  use  as  stated. 

6.  Take  a  portion  of  a  quill,  put  it  into  the  handle,  warm 
the  tang  and  insert  it  into  the  quill  in  the  handle,  and  press 
it  firmly.     This  is  a  simple  method,  and  answers  the  purpose 
required  very  well.  ^ 

Ink. 

The  varieties  of  writing-fluids  that  have  been  devised  and 
introduced  are  almost  innumerable,  but  for  practical  pur- 
poses the  inks  in  common  use  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes,  viz:  1.  Those  which  consist  of  a  powder  mechanic- 
ally divided  and  suspended  in  water  by  means  of  mucilage. 
2.  Those  which  consist  of  chemical  precipitates  held  in  sus- 
pension in  the  same  way.  3.  Those  which  consist  of  a  true 
solution  of  some  coloring  matter,  such  as  aniline  or  carmine. 
Of  the  first  class,  Indian  or  China  ink  is  the  great  type.  It 
consists  of  carbon  in  the  form  of  very  fine  lamp-black,  ground 
to  a  state  of  impalpable  fineness  in  water,  and  mixed  with 
some  pure  form  of  gelatine.  Its  use  is  wholly  restricted  to 
draughtsmen,  who  prefer  it  for  several  reasons.  In.  the  first 
place,  it  gives  the  fine.st  and  clearest  black  of  any  ink  known; 
it  }.s  unchangeable;  and  in  the  third  place,  it  does 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  63 

not  corrode  the  fine  and  expensive  steel  instruments  with 
which  it  is  used.  A  really  good  article  of  Indian  ink  is  some- 
what difficult  to  find.  Much  of  the  ink  in  market  is  gritty, 
and  instead  of  being  a  fine  jet  black,  it  is  of  a  blueish-gray 
color.  Moreover,  notwithstanding  all  the  grinding  that  the 
artist  can  give  it,  the  particles  are  always  coarse,  and  it  does 
not  readily  sink  into  the  paper.  With  such  ink  it  is  difficult 
to  draw  fine,  clear,  black  lines,  and  utterly  impossible  to 
produce  a  soft  mellow  tint  in  shading.  It  is  probable  that 
the  quality  of  the  ink  depends  not  only  upon  the  materials 
from  which  it  is  made,  but  upon  the  method  pursued  in  its 
manufacture,  and  in  regard  to  both  these  points  we  are  as  yet 
wholly  in  the  dark.  "When  good  Indian  ink  is  wanted,  there- 
fore, the  only  method  of  securing  it  is  to  test  carefully  the 
various  samples,  until  vre  get  a  good  one,  and  then  secure  a 
supply  that  will  last  indefinitely.  Fortunately  the  last  is  not 
a  difficult  thing  to  do,  when  we  have  found  a  sample  that 
suits  us;  for  a  single  stick  of  Indian  ink,  if  carefully  used, 
will  last  many  years,  even  in  the  hands  of  a  professional 
draughtsman.  Of  late  years  ix  liquid  Indian  ink  has  been  in- 
troduced, and  has  given  good  satisfaction,  but  it  is  scarce  and 
expensive.  Since  the  ordinary  Indian  ink  is  made  up  with  a 
fine  animal  glue,  instead  of  muciiuge  made  of  vegetable  gum, 
it  very  soon  decomposes  when  groand  up  with  water.  Henco 
it  can  not  be  kept  in  bottles  like  ordinary  ink,  but  must  be 
prepared  fresh  whenever  it  is  needed.  As  an  ink  for  ordinary 
writing  it  is  worthless,  for  the  simple  reason  that  it  does  not 
flow  well,  though  for  purposes  where  an  absolutely  indelible 
ink  is  needed — as,  for  instance,  in  writing  out  deeds  and 
records — nothing  better  can  be  obtained.  When  used  for 
this  purpose,  the  addition  of  a  very  small  quantity  of  caustic 
alkali— or,  what  is  better  yet,  of 'ox-gall — causes  it  to  flow 
freely  and  to  sink  deeply  into  the  paper  or  other  material 
usev1"  to  receive  it,  provided  the  latter  be  not  too  heavily 
sized.  When  properly  applied,  neither  heat,  moisture,  acids, 
alkalies,  nor  chemicals  of  any  kind,  affect  it;  and  it  might 
therefore  be  properly  used  to  write  those  records  which  are 
placed  under  the  corner-stones  of  important  buildings,  and 
which  are  expected  to  endure  for  an  indefinite  period. 

The  second  class  of  inks  comprises  all  those  black  inks  and 
writing  fluids  that  are  commonly  employed  for  commercial 
correspondence  and  records.  TTlie  different  formula?  for  $10. 


64  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

preparation  of  ink  that  have  been  published,  would  fill  a 
good  sized  volume;  but  most  of  the  inks  and  writing  fluids  in 
market  consist  of  a  precipitate  of  gallate  or  tannate  of  iron, 
held  in  suspension  by  means  of  mucilage.  Since  iron  may 
be  used  in  either  one  of  two  distinct  conditions  when  it  is 
employed  for  the  manufacture  of  ink,  it  follows  that  two  dis- 
tinct kinds  of  ink  may  be  made  from  it.  In  one  of  these  the 
iron  is  fully  oxidated,  and  the  ink  is  of  a  deep  jet  black.  The 
precipitate  of  iron  which  exists  in  such  ink  seems  to  assume 
a  coarse  and  heavy  form,  with  a  strong  tendency  to  sink  to 
the  bottom  of  the  containing  vessel.  It  therefore  requires  a 
large  proportion  of  mucilage  to  keep  the  coloring  matter  in 
suspension.  The  advantage  which  it  possesses,  is,  that  the 
ink  is,  from  the  very  first,  of  a  deep  black  ;  but  on  the  other 
hand,  the  objections  are  quite  as  important,  anJ  consist  in 
the  fact  that  it  can  not  be  made  to  flow  freely,  and  that  it 
does  not  sink  well  into  the  paper,  and  is  consequently  easily 
removed.  On  the  other  hand,  ink  made  with  salts  in  which 
the  iron  exists  as  protoxide,  is  always  pale  at  first,  but  after- 
wards assumes  a  dark  hue;  it  flows  freely  and  sinks  well  into 
the  fibre,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  remove  marks  made  by  it. 
This  character  it  is  apt  to  lose,  however,  when  exposed  to 
the  air,  as  we  shall  note  when  speaking  of  the  preservation  of 
ink. 

In  some  cases  a  compromise  is  made,  and  the  ink  is  pre- 
pared from  materials,  part  of  which  only  are  in  a  state  of 
complete  oxidation.  An  attempt  is  thus  made  to  secure  an. 
ink,  which,  while  black  from  the  first,  will  flow  freely  and. 
sink  well  into  the  paper,  and  some  very  good  inks  are  thus, 
compounded. 

Most  of  the  inks  known  as  violet,  mauve,  blue,  red,  car-, 
mine,  etc.,  consist  of  true  chemical  solutions,  generally 
nowadays  of  aniline,  though  the  finest  red  ink  is  still  made, 
from  carmine  dissolved  in  ammonia.  From  the  fact  that, 
there  is  no  solid  material  to  be  kept  in  supension,  these  inks, 
do  not  require  mucilage  in  their  composition  provided  they 
are  used  on  paper  that  has  a  good  deal  of  size  in  it;  they  con-, 
^equently  flow  freely,  do  not  leave  a  heavy  streak  of  liquid 
behind  the  pen,  and  the  streak  that  they  do  leave  sinks 
almost  instantly  intp  the  paper  and  disappears.  In  using 
them,  no  blotter  is  required;  and  they  are,  therefore,  great 
favorites  with  authors  and  those  persons  who  pay  less 


....      -'     'THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION'.  63 

to  the  color  of  their  writing  than  to  the  ease  with  which  the 
work  is  done,  and  the  clearness  and  tinblotted  appearance 
which  it  presents.  But  from  the  fact  that  no  really  good 
black  ink  of  this  class  has  yet  been  produced,  they  have  not 
come  into  general  use  amongst  book-keepers  and  commercial 
men,  and  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  on  the  whole  a  good 
black  ink  gives  a  better  appearance  to  a  set  of  books  than  ink 
of  any  other  color.  ' 

Ink  used  for  copying  letters  by  means  of  the  press,  requires 
to  be  thicker  than  that  used  for  ordinary  writing,  and  there- 
fore it  is  less  pleasant  to  use;  but  the  great  advantage  which 
attends  the  mechanical  process  of  copying  letters  will  always 
keep  up  the  demand  for  it. 

Such  being  the  peculiar  character  of  the  inks  in  common 
use,  it  may  be  well  to  say  a  few  words  concerning  the  best 
methods  of  preserving  them  in  good  condition.  The  great 
enemies  of  all  inks  are  evaporation,  dust,  and  decomposition, 
and,  in  the  case  of  iron  inks,  oxidation.  The  first  difficulty 
can  only  be  avoided  by  keeping  the  ink  from  exposure  to  the 
air,  and  this  is  best  effected  by  adopting  an  inkstand  in  which 
the  ink  exposes  a  very  small  surface  to  the  air.  Many  of 
the  inkstands  in  use  are  made  large  at  the  base,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  rendering  them  difficult  to  overturn.  In  such  stands 
the  ink  is  spread  out  in  a  thin,  wide  layer,  and  not  only 
evaporates  rapidly,  but  where  ordinary  black  ink  is  used,  the 
iron  oxidates,  and  the  ink  consequently  deteriorates.  A  very 
common  practice  on  the  part  of  those  who  use  ink,  is  to  leave 
the  mouth  of  the  stand  uncovered,  in  which  case  the  ink 
becomes  in  a  short  time  reduced  to  mud.  All  these  diffi- 
culties may  be  in  a  measure  avoided  by  using  a  heavy  stand, 
having  a  small  well  or  ink-holder,  which  should  be  kept  well 
covered  when  not  in  use,  and  ought  to  be  frequently  cleaned, 
the  old  ink  being  thrown  away.  The  supply  of  ink  should 
be  kept  in  a  bottle,  securely  corked,  and  when  the  stand  is 
filled,  the  new  ink  ought  never  to  be  poured  into  the  old,  as 
is  generally  done.  Throw  the  old  ink  away;  wash  out  tlio 
stand  carefully,  and  fill  it  up  with  new  fluid,  and  then  you 
can  enjoy  the  luxury  of  writing  with  ink  that  flows  freely, 
and  does  not  take  half  a  minute  to  moisten  the  paper  at  each 
stroke  that  you  attempt  to  make.  To  keep  ink  in  good 
order,  the  stand  should  be  washed  out  every  two  or  three 
weeks.  * 


to  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION, 

Many  inks,  especially  those  made  with  iron  and  galls,  a¥6 
liable  to  mould  and  decompose.  The  formation  of  mould 
may,  to  a  certain  extent,  be  prevented  by  the  use  of  creosote, 
carbolic  acid,  or  cloves,  and  most  of  the  better  class  of  inks 
in  market  are  prepared  so  as  to  resist  this  evil. 

In  the  recipes  generally  given  for  making  ink,  it  is  reconl- 
mended  to  bail  the  ingredients.  A  much  better  plan  is  to 
powder  the  galls  and  macerate  them  in  cold  water.  By  this 
latter  process,  more  time  is  of  course  necessary  to  make  it; 
but  then  the  ink  is  very  superior,  and  entirely  free  from 
extractive  matter  which  has  no  inky  quality,  and  which 
only  tends  to  clog  the  pen  and  to  turn  the  'ink  ropy  and 
mouldy. 

Black  Ink. — 1.  In  1  gallon  of  water  macerate  1  Ib.  of  finely 
powdered  Aleppo  galls  for  two  weeks,  and  strain  off  the 
liquid.  Dissolve  5£  oz.  sulphate  of  iron  and  5  oz.  gum  arabic 
in  as  little  water  as  is  necessary,  and  mix  the  two  liquids  with 
constant  stirring.  Keep  in  a  tall  bottle,  allow  it  to  settle  for 
some  days,  and  it  will  be  ready  for  use. 

2.  Take  gall  nuts,  broken,  one  pound;  sulphate  of  iron, 
half  a  pound ;  gum  acacia  and  sugar  candy,  of  each,  a  quarter 
of  a  pound;  water,  three  quarts.      Place  the  whole  of  these 
ingredients  in  a  vessel  where  they  can  be  agitated  once  a 
day;  after  standing  for  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks  the  ink  is 
ready  for  use.     Logwood  and  similar  materials,    are  often 
advised  to  be  used  in  conjunction  with  the  gall  nuts,  but 
they  serve  no  good  purpose  unless  it  be  to  make  a  cheaper 
article  which  fades  rapidly. 

3.  It  is  said  that  the  juice  of  eideiv ernes  to  which  sul- 
phate of  iron  has  been  added,  makes  a  good  ink.     The  best 
formula  is  said  to  be  12£  pints  juice  and  £  oz.  each  sulphate 
of  iron  and  crude  pyroligneous  acid. 

jRunge's  Black  Ink. — 1.  The  original  recipe  of  the  inventor 
is  as  follows:  Digest  i  Ib.  logwood  in  chips  for  12  hours  in  3 
pints  boiling  water.  Simmer  down  gently  to  1  quart,  filter 
and  add  20  grains  yellow  chromate  of  potassa. 

2.  The  following  modification  of  the  above  is  more  easily 
prepared:  Dissolve  16  parts  of  extract  of  logwood  in  1,000 
parts  of  water,  and  add  1  part  of  neutral  potassium  chromate 
(yellow  chromate  of  potassa). 

Blue  Ink. — Take  6  drachms  pure  Prussian  blue  and  1 
drachm  oxalic  acid.  Grind  in  a  mortar  with  a  little  water 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPAHIOtf .  67 

Until  they  form  a  perfectly  smooth  paste.  Dissolve  a  suf- 
ficient quantity  of  this  paste  in  water  to  give  the  proper  tint. 

Carmine  Ink,  French  Process. — Take  22  grammes  (4  grains) 
of  the  best  carmine,  add  to  it  sixty -five  grammes  (2  ounces) 
of  caustic  ammonia,  add  one  gramme  (15 ^  grains)  of  white 
gum  arabic.  Leave  the  mixture  until  the  gum  is  entirely 
dissolved.  This  ink  is  undoubtedly  dearer  than  that  pre- 
pared in  the  ordinary  way,  but  it  is  incomparably  more 
beautiful  and  more  durable,  for  experience  has  proved  tfe^.t 
letters  written  with  this  ink,  have  for  forty  years  been  pre- 
served without  the  slightest  alteration. 

Red  Ink. — Boil  £  Ib.  of  Brazil  wood,  £  oz.  of  gum,  £  oz. 
of  sugar,  and  \  oz.  of  alum  in  a  sufficient  quantity  of  vinegar. 

Aniline  Inks. — The  following  formulae  for  aniline  inks  are 
from  recent  authorities,  and  are  said  to  give  superior  results : 

Alcoholic  Solutions. — 1.  General  Formula:  Dissolve  15 
parts  of  aniline  color  in  150  parts  of  strong  alcohol  in  a  ves- 
sel of  glass  or  enamelled  iron  for  three  hours;  then  add  1,000 
parts  distilled  water;  heat  gently  for  some  hours, — in  fact, 
till  the  odor  of  the  alcohol  has  quite  disappeared;  then  add 
a  solution  consisting  of  GO  parts  of  powdered  gum  arabic  in 
250  parts  of  water. 

2.  Special  Formula  for  Violet:   Digest  £  oz.  aniline  violet 
in  1  oz.  alcohol  in  a  suitable  vessel,  as  above,  for  three  hours; 
then  add  1  qt.  of  distilled  water,  and  heat  gently  till  odor  of 
spirit  is  dissipated.     Then  add  2  drachms  gum   arabic  dis- 
solved in  £  pt.  water,  and  allow  the  whole  to  settle.     This 
will  bear  dilution,  if  desired,  with  an  additional  quantity  of 
distilled  water. 

3.  Special  Formula  for  Blue:  Dissolve  15  grains  aniline 
blue  in  1  oz.  alcohol,  and  add  6  oz.  in  distilled  water.     Boil 
in  proper  vessel,  as  above,  until  odor   of   alcohol  has  dis- 
appeared.    Then  add  3  drachms  powdered  gum  arabic  dis- 
solved in  4  oz.  distilled  water.      Finally  filter.     It  will  be 
perceived  that  there  is  considerable  difference  in  the  above 
special  formulae,  but  there  can  be  no  harm  in  making  it  too 
strong,  as  it  is  no  difficult  matter  to  dilute  with  distilled 
water  to  taste. 

Aqueous  Solutions. — 1.  Magenta,  1  oz.  to  the  gallon  of 
boiling  distilled  water.  2.  Violet:  £  oz.  to  a  gallou  difcto. 
3.  Blue:  1  o&  t&  ty  pts.  ditto.  4.  Green:  1  oz.  to  5  pts. 
ditto. 


68  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

The  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  vinegar  will  consider- 
ably improve  the  color  of  blue  aniline  fluid.  These  aqueous 
solutions  are  very  enduring,  though  not  exactly  permanent, 
as  they  give  way  to  long-continued  exposure  to  sunlight. 
They  are  very  limpid,  dry  quickly,  and  never  clog.  They 
should  of  course  be  filtered. 

Gold  Ink. — Grind  gold-leaf  with  honey  in  a  mortar  until  ic 
is  reduced  to  a  fine  powder.  Wash  out  the  honey  with  hot 
water  and  add  mucilage  of  gum  arabic.  A  cheap  article  may 
be  made  by  using  yellow  bronze  powder. 

Silver  Ink. — Prepared  in  the  same  way  as  gold  ink,  using 
silver  leaf  or  silver  bronze  powder. 

Marking  Ink  for  Linen. — Dissolve  £  oz.  nitrate  of  silver  in 
1  oz.  water  and  add  strong  liquid  ammonia  antil  the  precipi- 
tate which  is  at  first  formed  is  redissolved.  Add  l£  drachms 
gum  mucilage  and  enough  coloring  ina  er  to  render  the 
writing  clearly  visible.  The  writing  is  r  a,de  black  and  in- 
delible by  passing  a  hot  iron  over  it.  Keep  in  the  dark. 

IndeUtf '  Aniline  Ink. — Triturate  Ij  grammes  of  aniline- 
black  with  60  drops  of  strong  hydrochloric  acid  and  42  or  43 
grammes  strongest  alcohol;  then  add  to  it  a  hot  solution  of 
2-J  grammes  gum  arabic  in  170  grammes  of  water. 

This  ink  attacks  steel  pens  but  little.  It  is  not  destroyed 
either  by  strong  mineral  acids  or  by  strong  lye. 

If  the  first  alcoholic  solution  of  aniline  black  be  diluted 
with  a  solution  of  2£  grammes  of  shellac  in  140  grammes  of 
alcohol  (instead  of  gum  arabic  in  170  grammes  of  water)  an 
ink  is  produced  which  may  be  employed  for  writing  on  wood, 
brass  or  leather,  and  which  is  remarkable  for  its  deep  black 
color. 

Indelible  Indian  Ink. — Draughtsmen  are  well  aware  of  the 
fact  that  lines  drawn  on  paper  with  good  India  ink  which 
has  been  well  prepared,  can  not  be  washed  out  by  mere 
sponging  or  washing  with  a  brush.  Now,  however,  it  is 
proposed  to  take  advantage  of  the  fact  that  glue  or  gelatine, 
when  mixed  with  bichromate  of  potassa,  and  exposed  to  the 
light,  becomes  insoluble,  and  thus  renders  India  ink,  which 
always  contains  a  little  gelatine,  indelible.  Keisenbichler, 
the  discoverer,  calls  this  kind  of  ink  "Harttusch,"  or  "hard 
India  ink  ;"  it  is  made  by  adding  to  the  common  article,  when 
making,  about  one  per  cent.,  in  a  very  fine  powder,  of 
bichromate  of  potash  This  must  be  mixed  with  the  ink  in 


THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION.  69 

a  dry  state;  otherwise,  it  is  said,  the  ink  could  not  be  ground 
up  easily  in  water.  Those  who  can  not  provide  themselves 
with  ink  prepared  as  above  in  the  cake,  can  use  a  dilute 
solution  of  bichromate  of  potash  in  rubbing  up  the  ink;  it 
answers  the  same  purpose,  though  the  ink  should  be  used 
thick,  so  that  the  yellow  salt  will  not  spread. 

Indestructible  Ink.. — An  ink  that  can  not  be  erased  with 
acids  is  obtained  by  the  following  recipe:  To  good  gall  ink 
add  a  strong  solution  of  fine  soluble  Prussian  blue  in  dis- 
tilled water.  This  addition  makes  the  ink,  which  was  pre- 
viously proof  against  alkalies,  equally  proof  against  acids, 
and  forms  a  writing  fluid  which  cannot  be  erased  without 
destroying  the  paper.  The  ink  writes  greenish  blue,  but 
afterwards  turns  black. 

Ink  that  will  not  Freeze. — It  is  said  that  a  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  concentrated  glycerine,  alcohol  and  water,  deeply 
colored  with  aniline  black,  does  not  freeze  in  the  coldest 
weather,  flows  freely  from  the  pen,  and  does  not  spread. 
Our  only  fear  would  be  that  such  ink  would  not  dry  thor- 
oughly. 

Sympathetic  Ink  or  Secret  Ink. — Write  with  thin  solution  of 
starch,  and  let  the  correspondent  wash  with  solution  of 
iodine.  ^ 

2.  Write  with  milk,  onion  juice  or  lemon  juice,  and  let 
the  correspondent  expose  to  heat. 

3.  Write  with  solution  of  tartar  emetic  and  wash  with  any 
alkaline  sulphuret. 

4.  Brown. — On  dissolving  1  part  of  potassium  bromide, 
and  1  part  of  copper  sulphate  in  20  parts  of  water,   and 
writing  with  the  solution  on  paper,  veiy  careful  heating  will 
turn  the  writing  brown. 

5.  Yellowish-green. — Writing  done  with  a  solution  of   2 
parts  of  potassium  chromate,  2  of  nitric  acid,  2  of  sodium 
chloride  in  40  parts  of  water,  turns  yellowish-green  on  gentle 
warming. 

G.  Blue. — A  solution  of  equal  parts  of  sodium  chloride 
and  cobalt  chloride  in  20  times  the  amount  of  water  pro- 
duces lines  which  turn  blue  on  gentle  warming. 

Letters  may  be  written  on  postal  cards  with  these  inks, 
and  will  remain  invisible  until  washed  with  the  appropriate 
solution  or  exposed  to  heat.  To  prevent  the  letters  from 
being  seen  by  close  scrutiny  the  solutions  should  be  very 


70  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

dilute,  and  to  distract  the  attention  of  those  not  in  the 
secret,  write  some  unimportant  matter,  in  lines  far  apapt, 
and  between  them  write  the  private  matter  in  secret  or  sym- 
pathetic ink. 

Inks  for  Rubber  Stamps  and  Stencils. — 1.  Black.  Rub  to- 
gether one  part  of  finest  lampblack  and  2  parts  of  Prussian 
blue  with  a  little  glycerin,  then  add  1  part  powdered  gum 
arabic,  and  enough  glycerin  to  form  a  thin  paste. 

2.  Carmine. — Dissolve  24  grains  of  carmine  in  3  fl.  oz.  of 
water  of   ammonia,   then   add    2    fl.   drachms  of  glycerin. 
Incorporate  with  this  £  oz.  of  powdered  gum  arabic. 

3.  Blue. — Hub  together  6  parts  of  pure  Prussian  blue  and 
1  part  oxalic  acid  with  a  little  water,  to  a  perfectly  smooth 
paste.     Let  it  stand  in  a  rather  warm  place  over  night,  then 
rub  it  with  more  water,  and  with  1  part  of  gum  arabic  to  a 
thin  paste. 

4.  Aniline  inks  may  be  made  of  any  desired  shade  in  the 
same  manner.     The  best  way  of  using  these  inks  is  by  ap- 
plying them,  by  means  of  a  small  pad,  uniformly  to  a  little 
cushion,  on  which  the  stamps  are  then  inked. 

The  above  formulae  have  been  tested  by  experience,  and 
are  said  to  give  good  results.  Another  set  of  formulae,  also 
highly  recommended,  is  the  following: 

5.  Black. — Finest  lampblack,    10  parts  ;  powdered  gum 
arabic,  4  parts  ;  glycerin,  4  parts  ;  water,  3  parts.     Dissolve 
the  gum  arabic  in  the  water,  add  the  glycerin,  then  rub  the 
lampblack  with  the  mixture  in  a  mortar. 

6.  Colored. — Replace  the  lampblack  in  the  above  formula 
by  the  appropriate   color ;    chrome-yellow  for  yellow  ;    red 
lead  or  red  ochre  for  red  ;   green,  ultramarine,  or  chrome- 
green  for  green  ;  indigo  or  Prussian  blue,  or  blue  ultramarine 
for  blue  ;  umber  for  brown,  etc. 

Ink  Eraser. 

A  good  ink  eraser  is  thus  made  :  Take  of  chloride  of  lime, 
one  pound,  thoroughly  pulverized,  and  four  quarts  of  soft 
water.  The  above  must  be  thoroughly  shaken  when  first  put 
together.  It  is  required  to  stand  twenty-four  hours  to  dis- 
solve the  chloride  of  lime  ;  then  strain  through  a  cotton  cloth, 
after  which  add  a  teaspoonful  of  acetic  acid  to  every  ounce 
of  the  chloride  of  lime  water.  The  eraser  is  used  by  revers- 
ing the  penholder  into  the  fluid,  and  applying  it,  without 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  71 

rubbing,  to  the  word,  figure,  or  blot  required  to  be  erased. 
When  the  ink  has  disappeared,  absorb  the  fluid  with  a  blot- 
ter, and  the  paper  is  immediately  ready  to  write  upon  again. 
Chloride  of  lime  has  before  been  used  with  acids  for  the 
purpose  as  above  proposed  ;  but  in  all  previous  processes  th^3 
chloride  of  lime  has  been  mixed  with  acids  that  burn  and 
destroy  the  paper. 
Inlaying. 

Inlaying  is  a  term  applied  to  work  in  which  certain  figures 
which  have  been  cut  out  of  one  kind  of  material  are  filled  up 
with  another  of  a  different  color.  Such  work  is  known  as 
marquetry,  and  also  as  Boule  work,  and  Beisner  work,  from 
the  names  of  two  famous  French  artists. 

The  simplest  method  of  producing  inlaid  work  in  wood,  is 
to  take  two  thin  boards,  of  wood  or  veneers,  and  glue  them 
together  with  paper  between,  so  that  they  may  be  easily  sep- 
arated again.  Then,  having  drawn  the  required  figures  on 
them,  cut  along  the  lines  with  a  very  fine,  hair-like  saw. 
This  process  is  known  as  counterpart  sawing,  and  by  it  the 
pieces  removed  from  one  piece  of  wood,  so  exactly  corres- 
pond with  the  perforations  in  the  other  piece,  that  when 
the  two  colors  are  separated  and  interchanged,  the  one  mate- 
rial forms4he  ground  and  the  other  the  inlay  or  pattern.  If 
the  saw  be  fine  and  the  wood  very  dry  when  cut,  but  after- 
wards slightly  damped  when  glued  in  its  place,  the  joint  is 
visible  only  on  very  close  inspection,  and  then  merely  as  a  fine 
line.  After  being  cut,  the  boards  or  veneers  are  separated 
(which  is  easily  done  by  splitting  the  paper  between  them), 
and  then  glued,  in  their  places  on  the  work  which  they  are  to 
ornament. 

Imitation  Inlaying. — Suppose  an  oak  panel  with  a  design 
inlaid  with  walnut  is  wanted.  Grain  the  panel  wholly  in  oil. 
This  is  not  a  bad  ground  for  walnut.  When  the  oak  is  dry, 
grain  the  whole  of  the  panel  in  distemper.  Have  a  paper 
with  the  design  drawn  thereon,  the  back  of  which  has  been 
rubbod  with  whiting,  place  it  on  the  panel,  and  with  a 
pointed  stick  trace  the  design.  Then  with  a  brush  and  quick 
varnish  trace  the  whole  of  the  design.  When  the  varnish  is 
dry,  with  a  sponge  and  water  remove  the  distemper,  where 
the  varnish  has  not  touched.  This,  if  well  executed,  pre- 
sents a  most  beautiful  imitation  of  inlaid  wood.  Marbles 
are  executed  in  a  similar  manner. 


72  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

Iron. 

This  is  undoubtedly  the  most  important  metal  used  in  the 
arts.  Directions  for  working  it,  such  at  least  as  would  be 
valuable  to  professional  blacksmiths,  would  occupy  more 
space  than  we  can  afford,  and  we  therefore  content  ourselves 
with  a  few  hints  for  amateurs. 

Forging. — As  a  general  rule,  those  who  are  not  practical 
blacksmiths  had  better  take  their  work  to  a  smith's  shop. 
Cases  may,  however,  arise  where  it  is  necessary  to  forgo 
some  little  job,  and  the  following  hints  may  prove  of  use. 

In  working  iron  a  great  deal  depends  upon  the  degree  of 
heat  to  which  it  is  raised.  Blacksmiths  distinguish  five 
degrees,  which  they  name  as  follows  : 

1.  The  black-red  heat,  just  visible  by  daylight. 

2.  The  low-red  heat. 

3.  The  bright  red  heat,  when  the  black  scales  may  be  seen. 

4.  The  white  heat,  when  the  scales  are  scarcely  visible. 

5.  The  welding  heat,  when  the  iron  begins  to  burn  with 
vivid  sparks. 

Of  these  temperatures  the  1st,  2nd  and  3rd  are  easily  at- 
tained in  a  common  stove  or  grate.  It  requires  good  man- 
agement to  secure  the  4th  in  a  common  stove,  and  the  5th 
can  hardly  be  obtained  without  a  blast.  The  higher  the 
temperature  the  softer  and  more  easily  worked  the  metal 
becomes,  and  the  less  liable  to  crack  or  split  ;  and  as  good 
iron  is  not  easily  spoilt,  like  steel,  by  a  high  heat,  it  is  always 
best  to  get  the  metal  pretty  soft. 

Welding. — This  operation  requires  considerable  skill.  The 
two  great  points  to  be  attended  to  in  making  a  perfect  weld 
are  that  the  metal  shall  be  brought  to  a  proper  temperature, 
and  that  the  surfaces  to  be  united  shall  be  perfectly  clean. 
The  latter  point  can  only  be  secured  by  protecting  the  iron 
from  the  action  of  the  air  by  means  of  some  flux.  Sand  is 
generally  used  by  blacksmiths  and  answers  very  well-.  When 
sand  is  brought  into  contact  with  oxide  of  iron  at  a  high 
temperature,  it  combines  with  it  and  forms  a  fusible  glass 
which  flows  over  the  surface  of  the  iron  and  is  easily  driven 
out  of  the  joint  by  pressure.  Borax  makes  a  still  more  fusi- 
ble flux  and  may  be  successfully  used  by  amateurs,  but  is  too 
expensive  for  common  use. 

When  two  surfaces  of  iron,  which  have  been  cleansed  by 
means  of  sand  or  borax,  are  brought  together  at  a  high  heat 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  .     73 

and  forcibly  pressed  into  contact  by  hammering  or  pressure, 
they  unite  to  form  a  solid  mass.  Bearing  these  principles  in 
mind,  a  little  practice  will  soon  enable  any  one  to  make  a  re- 
spectable joint  by  welding. 

Case-hardening. — This  process  is  simply  the  conversion  of 
tho  surface  of  a  piece  of  iron  into  steel.  Case-hardened  arti- 
cles, when  plunged  into  cold  water  while  highly  heated,  be- 
come as  hard  as  the  hardest  steel,  but  they  may  be  annealed 
and  softened  so  as  to  be  easily  worked  with  files  and  turning 
tools,  and  afterwards  hardened  again  so  as  to  be  as  durable 
as  ever.  There  are  several  processes  for  performing  this  op- 
eration. The  following  have  been  tested  by  experience  : 

1.  Where  it  is  desired  that  the  articles  should  be  hardened 
to  a  considerable  depth  :  Char  a  quantity  of  bones,  just 
enough  (and  no  more)  to  enable  you  to  powder  them  with  a 
hammer.  Lay  a  layer  of  this  bone  dust  over  the  bottom  of 
an  iron  tray  or  box,  which  may  be  easily  made  by  bending 
heavy  sheet  iron  into  form.  Lay  the  articles  to  be  hardened 
on  the  bone  dust,  taking  care  that  they  do  not  touch  each 
other.  Cover  with  bone  dust  and  fill  up  the  tray  with  spent 
dust,  charcoal  or  sand.  Expose  to  a  bright  cherry  red  heat 
for  half  an  hour  or  an  hour,  and  then  turn  the  entire  contents 
of  the  tray  into  a  vessel  of  cold  water.  We  have  seen  beau- 
tiful results  obtained  by  this  process  when  carried  out  in  a 
common  kitchen  stove. 

Even  raw  bone  dust,  such  as  is  sold  for  farming  purposes, 
may  be  used  with  good  .results.  Pieces  of  gas  pipe  make 
good  receptacles  to  hold  the  work,  the  ends  being  stopped 
with  iron  plugs.  When  packing  the  articles  in  the  tubes  or 
trays,  see  that  they  do  not  touch  each  other. 

Bone  black  or  ivory  black  may  also  be  used,  and,  as  they 
may  be  purchased  ready  prepared,  we  may  avoid  the  disa- 
greeable process  of  roasting  the  raw  material. 

As  this  roasting  of  bones,  leather,  etc.,  gives  rise  to  most 
abominable  odors,  the  author  of  this  manual  some  years  ago 
devised  the  following  preparation,  which  was  found  to  give 
very  excellent  results.  Prepare  a  strong  solution  of  prussiate 
of  potassa,  boil  in  it  as  much  coarsely-powdered  wood  char- 
coal as  can  be  mixed  with  it.  Drain  off  the  superfluous 
liquid,  spread  the  charcoal  on  a  board,  and  dry  by  exposure 
to  the  air.  When  dry,  roast  it  at  a  temperature  just  below 
that  of  ignition,  the  object  being  to  drive  off  all  moisture, 


74  A  HE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

but  not  to  decompose  the  prussiate,  which,  at  a  red  heat,  is 
converted  into  cyanide  of  potassium  and  some  other  com- 
pounds. The  charcoal  thus  prepared,  and  afterwards  re- 
duced to  a  moderately  fine  powder,  will  be  found  to  answer 
quite  as  well  as  animal  charcoal,  and  no  difficulty  will  be 
found  in  case-hardening  to  a  depth  which  will  allow  of  a  good 
deal  of  polishing  before  the  soft  metal  underneath  is  reached. 

2.  Where  mere  superficial  hardening  is  required,  heat  the 
article  to  be  hardened  to  a  bright  red  ;  sprinkle  it  liberally 
with  powdered  prussiate  of  potash.  The  salt  will  fuse,  and 
if  the  piece  of  iron  is  small  and  gets  cooled,  heat  it  again  and 
plunge  into  cold  water. 

Rust  and  Corrosion. — Iron  is  easily  corroded  by  even  the 
weak  acids.  Sulphuric  acid,  nitric  acid,  and  hydrochloric 
acid  all  act  on  it  quickly  and  powerfully.  Air  and  moisture 
also  quickly  corrode  it.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  carbonate 
of  soda  protects  iron  very  perfectly  from  rust.  We  have 
seen  a  piece  of  iron  that  had  been  kept  in  a  solution  of  soda 
for  twenty  years,  and  yet  was  quite  bright. 

There  are  several  methods  of  protecting  iron  from  rust. 
Painting,  varnishing,  tinning,  zincing,  etc.,  have  all  been 
tried  with  good  effect.  Painting  and  varnishing  need  no  re- 
marks. Where  bright  work  is  to  be  temporarily  protected, 
however,  a  paint  of  white  lead  and  tallow  may  be  used. 
This  will  not  dry,  and  may  be  easily  and  quickly  removed 
with  a  little  turpentine. 

Zincing  Iron. — The  following  is  an  excellent  and  cheap 
method  i'or  protecting  from  rust,  iron  articles  exposed  to  the 
atmosphere,  such  as  cramp-irons  for  stone,  etc. :  They  are  to 
be  first  cleansed  by  placing  them  in  open  wooden  vessels,  in 
water  containing  three-fourths  to  one  per  cent,  of  common 
sulphuric  acid,  and  allowed  to  remain  in  it  until  the  surface 
appears  clean,  or  may  be  rendered  so  by  scouring  with  a  rag 
or  wet  sand.  According  to  the  amount  of  acid,  this  may  re- 
quire from  six  to  twenty-four  hours.  Fresh  acid  must  be 
added  according  to  the  extent  of  use  and  of  the  liquid  ;  when 
this  is  saturated  with  sulphate  of  iron,  it  must  be  renewed. 
After  removal  from  this  bath,  the  articles  are  rinsed  in  fresh 
water,  and  scoured  until  they  acquire  a  clean  metallic  surface, 
and  then  kept  in  water  in  which  a  little  slaked  lime  has  been 
stirred,  until  the  next  operation.  When  thus  freed  from  rust, 
they  are  to  be  coated  with  a  thin  film  of  zinc,  while  cold,  by 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  75 

means  of  chloride  of  zinc,  which  may  he  made  \,j  filling  a 
glazed  earthen  vessel,  of  about  two-thirds  gallon  capacity, 
three-fourths  full  of  muriatic  acid,  «Lid  adding  zinc  clippings 
until  effervescence  ceases.  The  liquid  is  then  to  be  turned 
off  from  the  undissolved  zinc,  and  preserved  in  a  glass  vessel. 
For  use,  it  is  poured  into  a  sheet-zinc  vessel,  of  suitable  size 
and  shape  for  the  objects,  and  about.  1  "80  per  cent,  of  its 
weight  of  finely  powdered  sal  ammoniac  added.  The  articles 
are  then  immersed  in  it,  a  scum  of  line  bubbles  forming  on 
the  surface  in  from  one  to  two  minutes,  indicative  of  the 
completion  of  the  operation.  The  articles  are  next  drained, 
so  that  the  excess  may  flow  bauk  into  the  vessel.  The  iron 
articles  thus  coated  with  a  fine  film  of  zinc  are  placed  on' 
clean  sheet  iron,  heated  from  beneath,  and  perfectly  dried, 
and  then  dipped  piece  by  piece,  by  means  of  tongs,  into  very 
hot  (though  not  glowing)  molt  311  zinc,  for  a  short  time,  until 
they  acquire  the  temperature  of  the  zinc.  They  are  then 
removed  and  beaten,  to  cause  the  excess  of  zinc  to  fall  off. 

Cold  Process  for  Zmcfuf/  Iron. — The  metal  is  first  cleaned 
by  being  placed  in  a  bath  made  up  of  water,  1,000  litres  ; 
chlorhydric  acid,  550  litres  ;  sulphuric  acid,  50  litres  ;  glycer- 
ine, 20  litres.  On  being  removed  from  this  bath,  the  metal 
is  placed  jn  a  bath  containing  10  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of 
potassa,  and  is  next  transferred  to  a  metallizing  bath,  consist- 
ing of  water,  1,000  litres  ;  chloride  of  tin,  5  kilos. ;  chloride 
of  zinc,  4  kilos. ;  bitartrato  of  potassa,  8  kilos. ;  acid  sulphate 
of  alumina,  4  kilos. ;  chloride  of  aluminum,  10  kilos.  The 
metal  is  to  be  left  in  this  mixture  for  from  three  to  twelve 
hours,  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  layer  of  zinc  to  be 
desired. 

Tinning  Iron. — The  surface  of  the  iron  is  cleaned  from  scale 
by  vitriol  or  sulphuric  acid,  and  then  scoured  with  sand.  It 
is  now  coated  with  a  strong  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc,  and 
dipped  into  melted  tin.  The  tin  will  instantly  adhere  t<~ 
every  spot  that  is  clean.  v 

Tinning  Iron  in  the  Cold. — The  chief  point  which  requires 
attention  in  this  matter  is  that  the  tinning  of  iron  in  the  cold 
cannot  succeed  at  all,  unless  the  bath  contains,  in  solution  or 
suspension,  an  organic  substance  like  starch  or  glucose, 
Although  no  precise  scientific  explanation  of  this  indispensi- 
ble  condition  has  been  hitherto  given.  To  100  litres  of 
water  are  added  3  kilos,  of  rye  meal ;  this  mixture  is  boiled 


76  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

for  half  an  hour,  and  next  filtered  through  cloth  ;  to  the 
rlear  but  thickish  liquid  are  added  100  kilos,  of  pyrophos- 
p!iate  of  soda,  17  kilos,  of  protochloride  of  tin  in  crystals  (so- 
called  tin-salt),  67  kilos,  of  neutral  protochloride  of  tin,  100 
to  120  grms.  of  sulphuric  acid  ;  this  liquid  is  placed  in  well- 
made  wooden  troughs,  and  serves  more  especially  for  the 
tinning  of  iron  and  steel  wire  (previously  polished)  for  the 
use  of  carding  machines.  When  instead  of  the  two  sorts  of 
tin  just  named,  cyanide  of  silver  and  cyanide  of  potassium 
are  taken,  the  iron  is  perfectly  silvered. 

Brightening  Iron. — A  Bavarian  serial  contains  a  method  of 
brightening  iron  recommended  by  Boden.  The  articles  to 
be  brightened  are,  when  taken  from  the  forge  or  the  rolls,  in 
the  case  of  such  articles  as  plates,  wire,  etc.,  placed  in  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  (1  to  20),  cleansing  the  articles,  which  are 
then  washed  clean  with  water  and  dried  with  sawdust.  They 
are  then  dipped  for  a  second  or  so  in  nitrous  acid,  washed 
carefully,  dried  in  sawdust  and  rubbed  clean.  It  is  said  that 
iron  goods  thus  treated  acquire  a  bright  surface,  having  a 
white  glance,  without  undergoing  any  of  the  usual  polishing 
operations.  This  is  a  process  that  those  interested  can  easily 
test  for  themselves.  Boden  states  that  the  action  of  the  sul- 
phuric acid  is  increased  by  the  addition  of  a  little  carbolic 
acid,  but  it  is  difficult  to  see  what  effect  this  can  have,  and  it 
may  very  well  be  dispensed  with. 

To  Remove  the  Blue  Color  Imparted  to  Iron  and  Steel  l>y  ex- 
posure to  Heat — Rub  lightly  with  a  sponge  or  rag  dipped  in 
diluted  sulphuric,  nitric,  or  hydrochloric  acid.  When  the 
discoloration  is  removed,  carefully  wash  the  article,  dry  it 
by  rubbing,  warm  it  and  give  a  coat  of  oil  or  it  will  rapidly 
rust. 

Ivory. 

Ivory  is  obtained  from  the  tusk  of  the  elephant,  and 
although  material  nearly  resembling  it  may  be  obtained  from 
other  animals,  yet  the  true  ivory  stands  unequalled  r,s  a  ma- 
terial for  ornamental  turning  and  carving.  It  is  not  so  brittle 
as  bone,  neither  does  it  splinter  so  much  when  broken,  and 
as  it  is  entirely  free  from  the  vessels  or  pores  which  permeate 
all  bone,  the  finished  articles  have  a  much  more  solid  and 
even  appearance.  Although  distinctly  fibrous  it  cannot  be 
torn  up  in  filaments  like  \>one  or  divided  into  thin  leaves, 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  77 

except  by  the  saw.  It  is  in  all  respects  the  most  suitable 
material  for  ornamental  turning,  as  it  is  capable  of  receiving 
the  most  delicate  linos  and  of  being  cut  in  the  most  slender 
proportions.  But  while  it  is  thus  valuable  as  a  material  for 
ornamental  work,  it  is  useless  for  any  article  requiring  ac- 
curacy in  its  dimensions— such  for  example  as  the  scales  of 
draughtsmen  and  the  graduated  arcs  of  instruments  for  mea- 
suring angles.  Owing  to  the  great  alterations  which  it  sus- 
tains under  slight  atmospheric  changes  it  cannot  be  relied 
upon,  aud  has  been  condemned  officially  by  the  survey  com- 
missioners of  almost  all  countries. 

It  is  imagined  by  some  that  ivory  may  be  softened  #o  as  to 
admit  of  being  moulded  like  horn  or  tortoise  shell.  Its 
different  analysis  contradicts  this  expectation  ;  thick  pieces 
suffer  no  change  in  boiling  water,  thin  pieces  become  a  littler 
more  flexible,  and  thin  shavings  give  off  their  jelly,  which  sub- 
stance is  occasionally  prepared  from  them.  It  is  true  that  the 
caustic  alkali  will  act  upon  ivory  as  well  as  upon  most  animal 
substances,  yet  it  only  does  so  by  decomposing  it.  Ivory, 
when  exposed  to  the  alkalies,  first  becomes  unctuous  or  sapo- 
naceous on  its  outer  surface,  then  soft,  if  in  thin  plates,  and 
it  may  be  ultimately  dissolved  provided  the  alkali  be  concen- 
trated ;  -but  it  does  not  in  any  such  case  resume  its  first  con- 
dition. ' 

Working  and  Polishing  Ivory. — As  a  material  to  be  worked 
oy  the  mechanic,  ivory  stands  midway  between  wood  and 
brass,  and  is  turned  and  cut  by  tools  having  more  obtuse 
angles  than  those  employed  for  wood,  and  yet  sharper  than 
those  used  for  brass.  It  may  be  driven  at  a  fair  speed  in  the 
lathe,  and  is  easily  sawed  by  any  saw  having  fine  teeth. 

The  tools  used  for  cutting  and  turning  ivory  should  have 
their  edges  very  finely  finished  OP  an  oil  stone  so  that  they 
may  cut  smoothly  and  cleanly. 

Turned  works  with  plain  surfaces  may  in  general  be  left  so 
smooth  from  the  tool  as  to  require  but  very  little  polishing,  a 
point  always  aimed  at  with  superior  workmen  by  the  employ- 
ment of  sharp  tools.  In  the  polishing  of  turned  works  very 
fine  glass  paper  or  emery  paper  is  first  used,  and  it  is  rendered 
still  finer  and  smoother  by  rubbing  two  pieces  together  face 
to  face  ;  secondly,  whiting  and  water  as  thick  as  cream  is 
then  applied  on  wash  leather,  linen,  or  cotton  rag,  which 
should  be  thin  that  the  fingers  may  the  more  readily  feel  and 


78  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

avoid  the  keen  fillets  and  edges  of  the  ivory  work,  that  would 
be  rounded  by  excessive  polishing  ;  thirdly,  the  work  is 
washed  with  clean  water,  applied  by  the  same  or  another 
rag  ;  fourthly,  it  is  rubbed  with  a  clean,  dry  cloth  until  all 
the  moisture  is  absorbed,  and,  lastly,  a  very  minute  quantity 
of  oil  or  tallow  is  put  on  the  rag  to  give  a  gloss. 

Scarcely  any  of  the  oil  remains  behind,  and  the  apprehen- 
sion of  its  being  absorbed  by  the  ivory  and  disposing  it  to 
turn  yellow  may  be  discarded  ;  indeed  the  quantity  of  oil 
used  is  quite  insignificant,  arid  its  main  purpose  is  to  keep 
the  surface  of  the  ivory  slightly  lubricated,  so  that  the  rag 
may  not  hang  to  it  and  wear  it  into  rings  or  groovy  marks. 
Putty  powder  is  sometimes  used  for  polishing  ivory  work, 
but  it  is  more  expensive  and  scarcely  better  suited  than 
whiting,  which  is  sufficiently  hard  for  the  purpose. 

The  polishing  of  irregular  surfaces  is  generally  done  with 
a  moderately  hard  nail  brush,  supplied  with  whiting  and 
water,  and  lightly  applied  in  all  directions,  to  penetrate  every 
interstice  ;  after  a  period  the  work  is  brushed  with  plain 
water  and  a  clean  brush,  to  remove  every  vestige  of  tho 
whiting.  The  ivory  is  dried  i/y  wiping  and  pressing  it  with 
a  clean  linen  or  cotton  rag,  and  is  afterwards  allowed  to  dry 
in  the  air,  or  at  a  good  distance  from  the  fire  ;  when  dry  a 
gloss  is  given  with  a  clean  brush  on  which  a  minute  drop  of 
oil  is  first  applied. 

It  is  better  to  do  too  1iH7o  polishing  at  first,  so  as  to  need 
a  repetition  of  the  proct:.,,,.  ,  .dlier  than  by  injudicious  activity 
to  round  and  obliterate  all  the  delicate  points  and  edges  of 
the  Avorks,  upon  the  preservation  of  which  their  beauty 
mainly  depends. 

Bleaching  and  Cleaning  Ivory. — In  reply  to  the  question, 
What  means  there  are  of  bleaching  ivory  which  has  become 
discolored  ?  Holtzapffel.  the  great  authority  on  such  subjects, 
tells  us  that  he  regrets  to  be  obliged  to  say  that  he  is  unac- 
quainted with  any  of  value.  It  is  recommended  in  various 
popular  works  to  scrub  the  ivory  with  Trent  sand  and  water, 
and  similar  gritty  materials  ;  but  these  would  only  produce 
a  sensible  effect  by  the  removal  of  the  external  surface  of  the 
material,  which  would  be  fatal  to  objects  delicately  carved  by 
hand  or  with  revolving  cutting  instruments  applied  to  the 
lathe. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  ivory  suffers  the  least  chunge 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  79 

of  color  when  it  is  exposed  to  the  light  and  closely  covered 
•with  a  glass  shade.  '  It  assumes  its  most  nearly  white  condi- 
tion when  the  oil  with  which  it  is  naturally  combined  is  re- 
cently evaporated  ;  and  it  is  the  custom  in  some  thin  works, 
such  as  the  keys  of  pianofortes,  to  hasten  this  period,  by 
placing  them  for  a  few  hours  in  an  oven  heated  in  a  very 
moderate  degree,  although  the  more  immediate  object  is  to 
cause  the  pieces  to  shrink  before  they  are  glued  upon  tho 
wooden  bodies  of  the  keys.  Some  persons  boil  the  transpa- 
rent ivory  in  pearl-ash  and  water  to  whiten  it ;  this  appears 
to  act  by  the  superficial  extraction  of  the  oily  matter  as  in 
bone,  although  it  is  very  much  better  not  to  resort  to  tho 
practice,  which  is  principally  employed  to  render  that  ivory 
which  is  partly  opaque  and  partly  transparent,  of  more  nearly 
uniform  appearance.  It  is  more  than  probable,  however, 
that  the  discoloration  of  ivory  is  due  to  the  oil  which  it  con- 
tains or  has  absorbed,  and  which  becomes  yellow  and  rancid, 
and  every  effort  should  be  made  to  prevent  oily  or  greasy 
bodies  from  coming  in  contact  with  ivory.  Thus  the  keys 
of  a  pianoforte  should  be  kept  clean  by  carefully  washing 
from  the  fingers  the  natural  grease  which  all  skin  gives  out. 
Wlien  ivory  keys  become  very  yellow  they  may  be  consider- 
ably wliitened  by  allowing  a  paste  of  whiting,  slightly 
moisteiied  with  potash,  to  lie  on  them  for  twenty -four  hours. 
The  potash  extracts  the  oil  which  is  absorbed  by  the  chalk 
and  may  be  thus  removed. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  most  oils  and  resins  may  bo 
bleached  by  exposure  to  sunlight.  It  is  by  this  means  that 
opticians  render  Canada  balsam  clear  and  transparent.  It 
has  been  found  that  pieces  of  apparatus  made  of  ivory,  such 
as  rules,  etc.,  which  have  become  yellow  by  age,  may  bo 
bleached  by  dipping  them  in  turpentine  and  exposing  them 
to  sunlight. 

The  fumes  of  sulphur,  chloride  of  lime,  etc.,  though  fre- 
quently recommended,  are  of  no  value  as  bleachers  of  ivory. 

Javelle  Water. 

This  name  was  derived  from  the  town  of  Javelle,  in  France, 
where  a  manufactory  sold  a  liquor  which  had  the  property 
of  bleaching  cloth  by  an  immersion  of  some  hours  only.  The 
following  is  the  original  recipe  given  by  Gray  in  his  "  Oper- 
ative Chemist":  2£  Ibs.  common  salt,  2  Ibs  of  sulphuric 


80  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

acid,  and  f  Ib.  of  black  manganese  are  mixed  in  a  retort  and 
heated,  and  the  gas  which  comes  over  is  condensed  in  2 
gallons  of  water  in  which  5  Ibs.  of  potash  have  been  dissolved. 
This  liquor  is  diluted  with  twelve  times  its  bulk  of  water. 

This  process  is  available  only  by  chemists,  however.  The 
following  gives  good  results  :  Take  4  Ibs.  carbonate  of  soda, 
and  1  Ib.  chloride  of  lime  ;  put  the  soda  into  a  kettle,  add  1 
gallon  of  boiling  water  and  boil  for  from  10  to  15  minutes  ; 
then  stir  in  the  chloride  of  lime,  breaking  down  all  lumps 
with  a  wooden  spatula  or  stirrer.  Pour  into  large  glass 
bottles  ;  when  cold  and  settled  it  will  be  ready  for  use. 

This  forms  a  very  efficient  bleaching  liquid  and  one  which 
it  is  not  difficult  to  remove  from  the  bleached  fabric.  Old 
and  stained  engravings  and  books,  as  Avell  as  linen  and  cotton 
goods  that  have  become  yellow  with  dirt  and  age,  may  be 
rendered  snowy  white  by  the  application  of  this  liquid 

Jewelry  and  Gilded  Ware. 

Ordinary  gold  Jewelry  may  be  effectually  cleansed  by  wash- 
ing with  soap  and  warm  water,  rinsing  in  cold  water  and 
drying  in  warm  boxwood  sawdust.  Plain,  smooth  surfaces 
may  be  rubbed  with  chamois  leather  charged  either  with 
rouge  or  prepared  chalk,  but  the  less  rubbing  the  better. 

Silver  is  liable  to  tarnish  by  the  action  of  sulphur,  and 
where  there  is  fine  chased  or  engraved  work  the  extreme 
delicacy  of  the  lines  may  be  injured  by  much  rubbing.  In 
such  cases  the  articles  may  be  cleaned  by  washing  with  a 
solution  of  hyposulphite  of  soda.  Cyanide  of  potassium  is 
a  more  powerful  cleansing  agent  but  is  very  poisonous. 

In  cleaning  gilded  ware,  different  processes  must  be 
used  for  articles  gilded  by  fire  or  by  the  galvanic  process, 
and  articles  gilded  by  gold  leaf,  such  as  frames,  etc.  For 
cleaning  articles  gilded  by  the  first-named  methods,  one  part 
cf  borax  is  dissolved  in  sixteen  parts  of  water.  With  this 
solution  the  article  is  carefully  rubbed  by  means  of  a  soft 
sponge  or  brush,  then  rinsed  with  water,  and  finally  dried 
with  a  linen  rag,  or  if  small,  such  as  a  piece  of  jewelry,  with 
boxwood  sawdust.  If  at  all  convenient,  the  article  is  warmed 
previously  to  being  rubbed,  by  which  means  the  brilliancy 
of  it-is  greatly  increased.  In  cleaning  gilded  frames  of  tho 
last  named  order,  pure  water  only  must  be  employed,  and  the. 
rubbing  off  of  the  impurities  must  take  place  by  means  of  a 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.,  81 

• 

very  slight  pi^sure.  Wares  of  imitation  gilt  are  generally 
covered  with  ?  shellac  or  resin  varnish,  which  would  be  dis- 
solved by  the  application  of  soap  water,  alkaline  solutions, 
or  spirits  of  wine.  Were  the  varnish  rubbed  off,  the  exceed- 
ingly thin  layer  of  gold  or  silver  leaf  beneath  would  also 
disappear.  In  our  experience  we  have  seen  hundreds  of  once 
valuable  but  now  worthless  frames,  they  having  become  thus 
simply  by  the  application  of  soap  water. 

Lacquer. 

Lacquer  is  so  called  because  it  usually  contains  gum  lac, 
either  shellac  or  seed  lac.  Seed  lac  is  the  original  form  of 
the  gum  or  resin  ;  after  being  purified  it  is  moulded  into  thin 
sheets,  like  shell,  and  hence  is  called  shellac.  Shellac  is 
frequently  bleached  so  as  to  become  quite  white,  in  which 
state  it  forms  a  colorless  solution.  Bleached  shellac  is  never 
as  strong  as  the  gum  in  its  natural  condition,  and  unless  it 
be  fresh  it  neither  dissolves  well  in  alcohol  nor  does  it 
preserve  any  metal  to  which  it  may  be  applied. 

There  are  many  recipes  for  good  lacquer,  but  the  success 
of  the  operator  depends  quite  as  much  upon  skill  as  upon 
the  particular  recipe  employed.  The  metal  must  be  cleaned 
perfectly  from  grease  and  dirt,  and  in  lacquering  new  work 
it  is  always  best  to  lacquer  as  soon  after  polishing  as  possible. 
Old  lacquer  may  be  removed  with  a  strong  lye  of  potash  or 
soda,  after  which  the  work  should  be  well  washed  in  water, 
dried  in  fine  beech  or  boxwood  sawdust  and  polished  with 
whiting,  applied  with  a  soft  brush.  The  condition  of  the 
work,  as  to  cleanliness  and  polish,  is  perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant point  in  lacquering. 

The  metal  should  be  heated  and  the  lacquer  applied  evenly 
with  a  soft  camel  hair  brush.  A  temperature  of  about  that 
of  boiling  water  will  be  found  right. 

The  solution  of  lac  or  varnish  is  colored  to  suit  the  require- 
ments or  taste  of  the  user. 

A  good  pale  lacquer  consists  of  three  parts  of  Cape  aloes 
and  one  of  turmeric  to  one  of  simple  lac  varnish.  A  full 
yellow  contains  four  of  turmeric  and  one  of  annatto  to  one  of 
lac  varnish.,  A  gold  lacquer,  four  of  dragon's-blood  and  one 
of  turmeric  to  one  of  lac  varnish.  A  red,  thirty-two  parts  of 
annatto  and  eight  of  dragon's-blood  to  one  of  lac  varnish. 

A  great  deal  depends,  also,  upon  the  depth  of  color  im- 


82  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

parted  to  the  lacquer,  and  as  tliis  may  require  to  be  varied, 
a  very  good  plan  is  to  make  up  a  small  stock  bottle,  holding, 
say,  half  a  pint,  according  to  any  good  recipe,  and  add  as 
much  of  it  to  the  varnish  as  may  be  required  for  the  desired 
tint. 

The  following  are  a  few  favorite  recipes  : 

Deep  Gold  Lacquer. — Alcohol,  £  pint ;  dragon's-blood,  1 
drachm  ;  seed  lac,  l£  oz. ;  turmeric,  £  oz.  Shake  up  well  for 
a  week,  at  intervals  of,  say,  a  couple  of  hours  ;  then  allow  to 
settle,  and  decant  the  clear  lacquer  ;  and  if  at  all  dirty  niter 
through  a  tuft  of  cotton  wool.  This  lacquer  may  be  diluted 
with  a  simple  solution  of  shellac  in  alcohol  and  will  then  give 
a  paler  tint. 

Bright  Gold  Lacquei\ — 1.  Turmeric,  1  oz..;  saffron  J  oz. ; 
Spanish  annatto,  £  oz. ;  alcohol,  1  pint.  Digest  at  a  gentle 
heat  for  several  days  ;  strain  through  coarse  linen  ;  put  the 
tincture  in  a  bottle  and  add  3  oz.  good  seed  lac  coarsely 
powdered.  Let  it  stand  for  several  days,  shaking  occasion- 
ally. Allow  to  settle  and  use  the  clear  liquid. 

2.  Take  1  oz.  annatto  and  8  oz.  alcohol.  Mix  in  a  bottle 
by  themselves.  Also  mix  separately  1  oz.  gamboge  and  8  oz. 
alcohol.  With  these  mixtures  color  seed  lac  varnish  to  suit 
yourself.  If  it  be  too  red  add  gamboge  ;  if  too  yellow  add 
annatto  ;  if  the  color  be  too  deep,  add  spirit.  In  this  manner 
you  may  color  brass  of  any  desired  tint. 

Pale  Gold  Lacqiier. — Best  pale  shellac  (picked  pieces),  8  oz. ; 
sandarac,  2  oz. ;  turmeric,  8  oz. ;  annatto,  2  oz. ;  dragon's-blood, 
±  oz. ;  alcohol,  1  gallon.  Mix,  shake  frequently  till  the  gums 
are  dissolved  and  the  color  extracted  from  the  coloring 
matters  and  then  allow  to  settle. 

Lacquer  used  by  A.  Ross. — 4  oz.  shellac  and  £  oz.  gamboge 
are  dissolved  by  agitation,  without  heat,  in  24  oz.  pure  pyro- 
acetic  ether.  The  solution  is  allowed  to  stand  "until  the 
gummy  matters,  not  taken  up  by  the  spirit,  subside.  The 
clear  liquor  is  then  decanted,  and  when  required  for  use  is 
mixed  with  8  times  its  quantity  of  alcohol.  In  this  case  the 
pyro-acetic  ether  is  employed  for  dissolving  the  shellac  in 
order  to  prevent  any  but  the  purely  resinous  portions  being 
taken  up,  which  is  almost  certain  to  occur  with  ordinary 
alcohol ;  but  if  the  lacquer  were  made  entirely  with  pyro- 
acetic  ether,  the  latter  would  evaporate  too  rapidly  to  allow 
time  for  the  lacquer  to  be  equally  applied. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  83 

Lacquers  suffer  a  chemical  change  by  heat  and  light,  and 
must,  therefore,  be  kept  in  a  cool  place  and  in  dark  vessels. 
The  pans  used  should  be  either  of  glass  or  earthenware,  and 
the  brushes  cf  camel's  hair  with  no  metal  fittings. 

Laundry  Gloss. 

Various  recipes  have  been  given  for  imparting  a  find  gloss 
to  linen.  Gum  arabic,  white  wax,  spermaceti,  etc.,  have  all 
been  highly  recommended,  and  are,  no  doubt,  useful  to  a 
certain  extent,  but  the  great  secret  seems  to  lie  in  the  quality 
of  the  iron  used  and  the  skill  of  the  laundress.  If  the  iron  is 
hard,  close  grained  and  finely  polished,  the  work  will  be 
much  easier.  Laundresses  always  have  a  favorite  smoothing 
iron  with  which  they  do  most  of  their  work,  and  many  of 
them  have  the  front  edge  of  the  iron  rounded  so  that  great 
pressure  can  be  brought  to  bear  on  a  very  small  spot  instead 
of  being  spread  over  a  space  the  size  of  the  whole  face  of  the 
iron.  If  smoothing  irons  have  become  rough  and  rusty  it 
will  pay  to  send  them  to  a  grinder  to  have  them  not  only 
ground  but  buffed  (see  aritcle  on  Polishing  Metals).  The 
greatest  care  should  be  taken  not  to  allow  them  to  get  spotted 
with  rust,  and  they  should  never  be  "  brightened  "  with 
coarse  sand,  ashes,  emery,  etc.  If  it  is  necessary  to  poliyh 
them,  ru-13  them  on  a  board,  or  preferably  a  piece  of  leather 
charged  with  the  finest  flour  of  emery,  obtained  by  washing, 
or  better  still,  jeweller's  rouge. 

Leaves— Skeleton. 

The  following  is  a  simple  method  of  preparing  skeleton 
leaves,  and  is  decidedly  preferable  to  the  old  and  tedious 
method  of  maceration,  as  it  is  quite  as  efficient  and  not  at  all 
offensive.  First  dissolve  four  ounces  of  common  washing 
soda  in  a  quart  of  boiling  water,  then  add  two  ounces  of 
slaked  quicklime  and  boil  for  about  fifteen  minutes.  Allow 
the  solution  to  cool :  afterwards  pour  off  all  the  clear  liquor 
into  a  clean  saucepan.  When  this  liquor  is  at  its  boiling 
heat  place  the  leaves  carefully  in  the  pan,  and  boil  the  whole 
together  for  an  hour,  adding  from  time  to  time  enough  wator 
to  make  up  for  the  loss  by  evaporation.  The  epidermis  and 
parenchyma  of  some  leaves  will  more  readily  separate  than 
others.  A  good  test  is  to  try  the  leaves  after  they  have  been 
gently  boiling  for  an  hour,  and  if  the  cellular  matter  does  not 
easily  rub  off  betwixt  the  finger  and  thumb  beneath  cold 


84  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

•water,  boil  them  again  for  a  short  time.  When  the  fleshy 
matter  is  found  to  be  sufficiently  softened,  rub  them  sepa- 
rately but  very  gently  beneath  cold  water  until  the  perfect 
skeleton  is  exposed. 

The  skeletons,  at  first,  are  of  a  dirty  white  color  ;  to  make 
them  of  a  pure  white,  and  therefore  more  beautiful,  all  that 
is  necessary  is  to  bleach  them  in  a  weak  solution  of  chloride 
of  lime — a  large  teaspoonful  of  chloride  of  lime  to  a  quart  of 
water  ;  if  a  few  drops  of  vinegar  are  added  to  the  solution  it 
is  all  the  better,  for  then  the  free  chlorine  is  liberated.  Do 
not  allow  them  to  remain  too  long  in  the  bleaching  liquor, 
or  they  will  become  too  brittle,  and  cannot  afterwards  be 
handled  without  injury.  About  fifteen  minutes  will  be  suf- 
ficient to  make  them  white  and  clean  looking.  Dry  the  speci- 
mens in  white  blotting  paper,  beneath  a  gentle  pressure. 
Simple  leaves  are  the  best  for  young  beginners  to  experiment 
on  ;  the  vine,  poplar,  beach  and  ivy  leaves  make  excellent 
skeletons.  Care  must  be  exercised  in  the  selection  of  leaves, 
as  well  as  the  period  of  the  year  and  the  state  of  the  atmo- 
sphere when  the  specimens  are  collected  ;  otherwise,  failure 
will  be  the  result.  The  best  months  to  gather  the  specimens 
are  July  and  August.  Never  collect  specimens  in  damp 
weather,  and  none  but  perfectly  matured  leaves  ought  to  be 
selected. 

Lights— Signal  and  Colored. 

The  following  recipes  are  from  the  United  States  Ordnance 
Manual,  and  may  be  considered  reliable.  The  composition 
for  signal  lights  is  packed  in  shallow  vessels  of  large  diame- 
ter so  as  to  expose  considerable  surface.  Where  the  burning 
surface  is  large,  the  light  attains  great  intensity,  but  the  ma- 
terial burns  out  rapidly.  In  arranging  the  size  and  shape  of 
the  case,  therefore,  regard  must  be  had  to  the  time  the  light 
is  expected  to  burn  and  the  brilliancy  that  is  wanted.  [See 
caution  at  end  of  lids  article.] 

Bengal  Light. — Antimony,  2  ;  sulphur,  4  ;  mealed  powder, 
4  ;  nitrate  of  soda,  16. 

Blue. — Black  sulplmret  of  antimony,  1 ;  sulphur,  2  ;  pure 
nitre,  6.  Grind  to  a  very  fine  powder  and  mix  thoroughly. 
See  that  the  nitre  is  perfectly  dry.  This  composition  gives 
a  bluish  white  light ;  a  deeper  blue  may  be  had  by  the  addi- 
tion of  a  little  finely  pulverized  zinc. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  85 

t 

Red. — 1.  Saltpetre,  5  ;  sulphur,  6  ;  nitrate  of  strontia,  20 ; 
lampblack,  1. 

2.  Nitrate  of  strontia,  20  ;  chlorate  of  potassa,  8  ;  Sulphur, 
6  ;  charcoal,  1. 

White. — Saltpetre,  16 ;  sulphur,  8  ;  mealed  powder,  4. 
Grind  to  a  very  fine  powder  and  mix  well. 

The  following  have  been  very  highly  recommended  : 

Crimson  Fire. — Sulphide  of  antimony,  4 ;  chlorate  of  po- 
tassa, 5  ;  powdered  roll  brimstone,  13  ;  dry  nitrate  of  strontia, 
40  parts. 

A  very  little  charcoal  added  to  the  above  makes  it  burn 
quicker. 

Green  Fire. — Fine  charcoal,  3 ;  sulphur,  13 ;  chlorate  of 
potassa,  8  ;  nitrate  of  baryta,  77. 

White. — 1.  Nitrate  of  potassa  (saltpetre),  24 ;  sulphur  7  ; 
charcoal,  1. 

2.  Nitre,  6 ;  sulphur,  2 ;   yellow  sulphuret  of  arsenic,  1. 
[NOTE. — This  light  is  a  very  brilliant  one  and  a  very  pure 
white,  but  the  fumes  are  highly  poisonous.     It  should  be 
used   only  in  the  open  air  and  'the  wind  should  blow  the 
vapors  away  from  the  spectators — not  towards  them.] 

3.  Chlorate  of  potash,  10  ;  nitre,  5  ;  lycopodiuni,  3  ;  char- 
coal 2.      - 

4.  Metallic  magnesium  in  the  form  of  ribbon  or  wire.    This 
is  the  best  and  most  easily  used.     It  may  be  purchased  of 
most  dealers  in  chemicals.     A  few  inches  of  magnesium  rib- 
bon coiled  into  a  spiral  (like  a  spiral  spring)  and  ignited  by 
means  of  a  spirit  lamp,  or  even  by  a  little  tuft  of  cotton 
soaked  in  alcohol  and  fired  with  a  lucifer  match,  makes  a 
light  of  surpassing  brilliancy  and  power.    It  requires  a  slight 
knack  to  ignite  the  ribbon.     Hold  the  end  of  it  steadily  in 
the  outer  edge  of  the  flame  and  it  will  soon  take  fire.      The 
light  given  out  by  a  small  ribbon  of  magnesium  is  clearly 
visible  at  a  distance  of  thirty  miles. 

Lights  for  Indoor  Illuminations. — Many  of  the  above  are 
unfit  for  indoor  exhibitions  owing  to  the  amount  of  sul- 
phurous gas  given  off.  For  tableaux  in  churches,  schools 
and  private  houses,  the  best  light  is  undoubtedly  magnesium 
or,  where  it  can  be  had,  the  lime  light  (sometimes,  though 
erroneously,  called  the  calcium  light).  Both  of  these  lights 
are  very  powerful,  and  any  color  may  be  obtained  by  the 
use  of  pieces  of  differently  colored  glass.  A  very  effective 


86  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION 

arrangement  consists  of  a  cin  box,  which  may  be  made  out 
of  one  of  those  cases  in  which  crackers  are  imported.  Pro 
cure  good-sized  pieces  of  red  and  blue  glass,  the  red  being  a 
soft,  warm  tint,  such  as  will  add  a  richness  to  the  complex- 
ions of  those  upon  whom  the  light  is  thrown.  Arrange  one 
end  of  the  tin  box  so  that  these  glasses  may  be  slipped  over 
a  large  hole  in  it.  The  opposite  end  of  the  box  should  be 
highly  polished  s-o  as  to  act  as  a  reflector,  and  a  hole  should 
be  cut  in  one  side  so  as  to  allow  of  the  introduction  of  the 
magnesium. 

In  every  case  the  burning  matter  should  be  so  shaded 
that  it  may  not  be  seen  by  the  audience.  If  the  direct  light 
from  the  burning  body  meets  the  eyes  of  the  spectators  the 
reflected  light  from  the  objects  composing  the  tableau  will 
have  no  effect. 

Where  arrangements  for  lime  or  magnesium  lights  cannot 
be  made,  the  following  may  be  used. 

White. — Chlorate  of  potash,  12  ;  nitre,  5  ;  finely  powdered 
loaf  sugar,  4  ;  lycopodium  2. 

Green. — Nitrate  of  baryta,  shellac  and  chlorate  of  potassa, 
all  finely  powdered,  equal  parts  by  bulk. 

Red. — Nitrate  of  strontia,  shellac  and  chlorate  of  potassa, 
all  finely  powdered,  equal  parts  by  bulk. 

The  brilliancy  of  these  fires  will  depend  largely  upon  the 
thoroughness  with  which  the  materials  are  finely  powdered 
and  mixed.  [See  caution  at  end  of  this  article.  J 

Braunschweizer  recommends  the  following  formulse  as 
giving  excellent  results,  the  lights  being  good  without  pro- 
ducing injurious  fumes  : 

Red. — Nitrate  of  strontia,  9 ;  shellac,  3 ;  chlorate  of  pot- 
assa, l£. 

Green. — Nitrate  of  baryta,  9  ;  shellac,  3  ;  chlorate  of  pot- 
assa, \\. 

'Slue. — Ammoniacal  sulphate  of  copper,  8;  chlorate  of 
potassa,  6;  shellac,  1. 

The  Pharmacist  gives  the  following  formula  for  "Bed 
Fire,"  which  will  not  evolve  sulphurous  acid  during  com- 
bustion :  nitrate  of  strontia,  1  Ib. ;  chlorate  of  potassa,  J  Ib. ; 
shellac,  £  Ib. 

These  ingredient  must  be  thoroughly  dried,  powdered 
separately,  and  carefully  mixed  by  gentle  stirring. 

Ghosts,  Demons,  Spectres  and  Murderers. — To  give  a  ghastly 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  87 

hue  to  the  faces  of  the  actors,  the  best  light  is  that  produced 
by  some  salt  of  soda,  common  salt  being  very  good.  We 
have  succeeded  well  in  this  way  :  A  piece  of  wire  gauze  such 
as  ash-sifters  are  made  of,  and  about  a  foot  square,  was  sup- 
ported at  a  height  of  about  a  foot  from  the  floor,  which  was 
protected  by  a  sheet  of  iron.  On  the  wire  gauze  were  laid 
twenty -five  wads  of  cotton  waste  which  had  been  soaked  in  n. 
Solution  of  common  salt,  dried  and  dipped  in  alcohol  jusfc 
before  being  laid  on  the  wire.  When  these  were  ignited  we 
had  twenty -five  powerful  flames  all  tinged  with  sodium  and 
burning  freely,  as  the  air  rose  readily  among  them  through 
the  wire  grating.  Such  a  flame  produces  quite  a  powerful 
light  and  gives  a  death-like  appearance  to  even  the  most 
rosy-cheeked  girl. 

The  following  give  a  strong  light  and  produce  a  most 
ghastly  effect: 

1.  Nitrate  of  soda,  10  ;  chlorate  of  potash,  10  ;  sulphide  of 
antimony,  3  ;  shellac,  4.     The  materials  must  be  warm  and 
dry,  and  as  the  nitrate  of  soda  attracts  moisture  rapidly,  it 
must  be  well  dried,  then  finely  powdered  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible and  kept  in  well-corked  bottles.     As  this  gives  off  a 
good  deal  of  sulphurous  fumes,  the  following  may  be  pre- 
ferred Avllfcre  the  ventilation  is  not  good  : 

2.  Nitrate  of    soda,   10  ;    chlorate  of  potassa,   15  ;    white 
sugar  finely  powdered,  5  ;  lycopodium,  2. 

CAUTION. 

In  using  chlorate  of  potassa  the  greatest  care  is  necessary. 
It  may  be  powdered  and  otherwise  handled  safely  whon. 
alone,  but  when  combustible  matter  of  any  kind  is  added  to 
it,  the  mixture  becomes  highly  explosive  and  must  be  very 
gently  handled.  It  must  therefore  be  powdered  separately 
and  only  mixed  with  the  other  ingredients  after  they  liavo 
been  powdered.  The  mixing  should  be  done  on  a  large  sheet 
of  paper,  very  gently,  but  very  thoroughly,  with  a  thin, 
broad-bladed  knife. 

Mixtures  of  chlorate  of  potash  with  sulphur,  sulphurets, 
and  especially  phosphorous,  are  liable  to  explode  spontane- 
ously after  a  time,  and  should  never  be  kept  on  hand.  They 
phould  be  made  as  wanted. 

Flowers  of  sulphur  are  very  liable  to  contain  a  trace  of 
sulphuric  or  sulphurous  acid,  which,  acting  upon  chlorate  of 


88  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION, 

potash  causes  spontaneous  ignition.  This  may  be  obviated 
by  pouring  a  few  drops  of  liquid  ammonia  on  the  sulphur, 
mixing  it  up  thoroughly  and  allowing  it  to  stand  for  some 
time.  A  safe  way  also  is  to  use  powdered  roll  brimstone 
instead  of  flowers  of  sulphur. 

Phosphorous  Light. — One  of  the  most  brilliant  lights  known 
is  produced  by  burning  phosphorous  in  oxygen.  The  appa- 
ratus usually  employed  for  this  purpose  is  bulky  and  expen- 
sive, but  the  following  is  a  very  simple  method  of  producing 
a  very  intense  light  by  the  combustion  of  phosphorous  : 
Take  an  amount  of  nitre  proportional  to  the  desired  intensity 
and  duration  of  the  light  required,  dry  it  thoroughly,  powder 
it  and  pack  it  solidly  in  an  earthen  vessel,  leaving  a  small 
cup-like  hollow  in  its  upper  surface.  In  this  hollow  place  a 
piece  of  phosphorous  which  has  been  carefully  dried  with 
soft  paper  or  rags  and  set  it  on  fire.  As  the  phosphorous 
burns,  the  nitre  melts,  decomposes  and  furnishes  it  with  pure 
oxygen,  and  the  resulting  light  is  very  brilliant. 

NOTE. — In  handling  phosphorous  be  very  careful.  Do  not 
touch  it  with  the  hands  or  nib  it  with  the  article  used  to 
dry  it,  as  it  takes  fire  very  easily,  and  the  burns  produced  by 
it  are  very  severe.  It  should  always  be  cut  under  water. 

Photographic  Light. — A  light  of  intense  photographic 
power  is  produced  by  burning  bisulphide  of  carbon  in  an 
argand  lamp  and  passing  a  stream  of  nitric  oxide  through  the 
centre  of  the  flame  Nitric  oxide  is  easily  produced  as 
wanted  by  allowing  nitric  acid  to  act  on  scraps  of  copper. 

The  following  specific  dilutions  will  enable  the  reader  to 
produce  this  light  in  a  less  simple  but  more  effective  manner  : 
A  quart  bottle  with  a  somewhat  large  mouth,  has  a  cork 
with  two  openings.  Through  one  of  these  a  tube  passes  to 
near  the  bottom  of  the  bottle  ;  through  the  second  a  large 
tube  packed  with  iron  scale  issues.  Fragments  of  pumice 
fill  the  bottle,  and  on  these  carbon  disulphide  is  poured.  A 
current  of  nitric  oxide  gas,  prepared  by  Deville's  method — 
by  the  action  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids  on  metallic  iron 
contained  in  a  self-regulating  reservoir — is  passed  through 
the  bottle,  where  it  takes  up  the  vapor  of  the  disulphide.  It 
is  then  led  through  the  safety-tube,  packed  with  iron-scale,  to 
a  gas  burner  of  the  required  capacity  Excellent  photo- 
graphs have  been  taken  in  five  seconds  with  this  light,  the 
object  being  six  feet  distant.  In  photographic  power  the 


THE  WOE!  3HOP  COMPANION.  80 

light  is  asserted  to  be  superior  to  the  magnesium  or  calcium 
light,  and  even  to  surpass  the  electric  light  itself.  The 
products  of  combustion  are  noxious  and  must  be  gotten 
rid  of. 

Chatham  Light — This  is  a  most  intense  flash-light  used  for 
military  signals.  Three  parts  finely  powdered  resin  are 
mixed  with  one  part  magnesium  dust,  and  blown  by  means 
of  a  tube  through  the  flame  of  a  spirit  lamp.  The  flame  should 
be  large  so  as  to  insure  the  ignition  of  all  the  dust.  The  dis- 
tance at  which  such  a  flame  can  be  seen  is  extraordinary. 

Some  years  ago  the  author  devised  a  method  of  producing  a 
light  of  marvellous  brilliancy  by  the  use  of  magnesium 
powder.  A  rude  argand  spirit  lamp  was  constructed  in  such 
a  way  that  the  central  tube  could  be  connected  in  an  air-tight 
fashion  with  a  reservoir  of  oxygen.  A  small  stopcock,  with 
the  hole  of  the  plug  closed  at  one  side  so  as  to  leave  a  cup 
instead  of  a  hole,  was  fitted  into  the  tube  leading  from  the 
oxygen  reservoir  to  the  lamp.  When  turned  upward  this 
cup  was  easily  filled  with  magnesium  powder,  and  when 
turned  down  it  of  course  dropped  its  charge  into  the  stream 
of  oxygen,  which  carried  it  at  once  to  the  lamp,  there  to  be 
consumed  in  a  flash  of  extraordinary  brilliancy. 

Looking  GlaSS.     (See  Mirrors.) 

Lubricators. 

In  selecting  a  lubricator  for  any  rubbing  surfaces,  care  must 
be  taken  to  adapt  the  character  of  the  lubricating  material  to 
the  nature  of  the  rubbing  surfaces  and  the  weight  which  they 
have  to  sustain.  A  fine,  thin  oil  is  useless  for  heavy  bearings, 
and  a  hard,  stiff  soap,  which  would  be  excellent  for  such 
bearings,  would  be  a  poor  article  for  a  very  light  piece  of 
machinery.  In  the  case  of  heavy  bearings,  such  as  railway 
s-xles,  when  they  once  begin  to  heat  and  cut,  it  will  be  found 
impossible  to  prevent  heating  by  the  mere  application  of  oil. 
The  surfaces  of  the  metal  must  be  worked  over  either  by 
grinding  or  the  turning  tool.  Thus,  when  journals  heat  at 
sea,  the  usual  custom  is  to  use  sulphur,  black-lead,  or  water  ; 
but  the  relief  they  afford  is  only  temporary.  The  following 
is  a  method  that  gives  permanent  relief  :  When  you  find  the 
journals  getting  hot,  slack  back  the  nuts  on  the  cap  from 
one-quarter  to  pne-third  of  a  turn,  and  supply  the  jovtrnaj 


90  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

freely  with  dust  procured  by  rubbing  two  Bath  bricks  to- 
gether, mixed  in  oil  to  a  consistency  a  little  thinner  than 
cream.  After  a  short  time  begin  cautiously  to  set  up  on  the 
nuts  ;  and  before  finally  bringing  the  nuts  to  their  original 
position,  give  a  copious  supply  of  oil  alone  to  wash  out  the 
journal ;  then  bring  the  nuts  into  position,  and  you  will  have 
no  further  trouble.  This  plan  has  also  been  tried  on  railway 
journals,  and  it  has  been  found  that  a  handful  of  clay  or 
gravel  has  effected  that  which  gallons  of  oil  and  Avater  could 
not  do. 

In  addition  to  the  usual  oils  and  grease  the  following  lu- 
bricators deserve  attention  : 

1.  Plumbago. — This  material  i&T  gradually  coming  into  use, 
and  when  properly  selected  and  applied  it  never  fails  to  give 
satisfactory  results.     It  may  be  used  on  the  heaviest  planers 
and  ocean  steamers,  or  on  the  lightest  watchwork.     When 
applied  to  delicate  machinery  the  surfaces  should  be  very 
lightly  coated  with  the  plumbago  by  means  of  a  brush.     In 
this  way  all  danger  of  grit  is  avoided.     Plumbago  seems  to 
be  specially  adapted  to  diminish  the  friction  between  porous 
surfaces,  such  as  wood  and  cast  iron.     Tor  the  cast  iron  bods 
of  heavy  planers  it  is  a  specific. 

2.  Anti-Attrition. — Mix  4  Ibs.   tallow  or  soap  with  1  Ib. 
finely  ground  plumbago.      The  best  lubricator  for   wood 
working  on  wood.     Excellent  for  wooden  screws  where  great 
power  is  required. 

3.  Fine  Lubricating  Oil — Put  fine  olive  oil  in  a  bottle  with 
scrapings  of  lead  and  expose  it  to  the  sun  for  a  few  weeks. 
Pour  off  the  clear  oil  for  use.     Another  method  is  to  freeze 
fine  olive  oil,  strain  out  the  liquid  portion  and  preserve  for  use. 

Booth's  Axle  Grease. — Dissolve  £  Ib.  Avashing  soda  in  1 
gallon  Avater  and  add  3  Ibs.  talloAv  and  6  Ibs.  palm  oil.  Heat 
to  210"  Fahr.,  and  keep  constantly  stirring  until  cooled 
to  00°  or  70°. 

Marble, 

Marble  is  a  compact  carbonate  of  lime  which  varies  in  color, 
some  specimens  being  pure  Avhite,  others  perfectly  black, 
while  others  are  green,  red,  veined,  mottled,  etc.  The  famous 
Mexican  onyx,  so-called,  is  also  a  carbonate  of  lime,  and  not- 
withstanding its  hardness  and  beauty  is  liable  to  injury 
|he  sajne  causes  that  affect  ordinary  marble. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  91 

Marble  is  easily  dissolved,  with  escape  of  carbonic  acid 
gas,  by  the  mineral  acids,  sulphuric,  nitric,  hydrochloric, 
etc.,  and  it  is  also  acted  upon,  though  more  slowly  by  vinegar, 
the  acids  of  fruit,  etc.  It  is  also  soluble  in  water  containing 
an  excess  of  carbonic  acid,  and  therefore  dissolves  rapidly  in 
the  ordinary  "soda"  water  that  is  so  generally  sold  as  a 
beverage,  for  this  fluid,  in  its  pure  state,  consists  solely  of 
water  holding  a  large  amount  of  carbonic  acid  in  solution. 
Consequently  bottles  and  glasses  of  this  liquid  should  not  be 
placed  where  there  is  any  danger  of  spilling  it  on  mantel 
pieces,  table  i^ps,  etc.,  PS  it  will  infallibly  destroy  the  ex- 
quisite polish  upon  which  the  beauty  of  such  articles  of 
furniture  depends. 

Finely  carved  articles  of  marble,  when  exposed  to  the  rain 
of  our  northern  climates,  are  apt  to  suffer  corrosion,  and  the 
delicate  tracery  of  the  sculptor  is  soon  lost.  Therefore, 
while  marble  answered  very  well  in  the  comparatively  dry 
climates  of  Greece  and  Egypt,  it  is  unsuited  for  statues,  etc. , 
exposed  to  the  open  air,  in  England  and  America,  the  rainfall 
in  these  countries  being  very  great,  and  the  moisture  heavily 
charged  with  carbonic  and  sulphurous  acids. 

In  cleaning  marble  ornaments,  etc.,  great  care  must  be  ex- 
ercised .to  use  nothing  corrosive  like  acids,  chlorides,  or 
metallic  salts,  such  as  are  usually  recommended  for  removing 
stains  of  inks  and  dyes  from  wood  and  textile  fabrics.  When 
marble  has  been  stained  by  ink  or  vegetable  coloring  matter, 
the  only  way  to  remove  it  is  to  apply  warm  water  abundantly 
and  for  a  long  time.  If  the  marble  is  very  compact,  and  the 
stain  consequently  quite  superficial,  the  article  may  be 
scraped  and  repolished,  but  of  course  this  is  applicable  only 
to  objects  which  have  plane  surfaces,  or  those  Avith  simple 
curves.  Elaborately  carved  or  sculptured  objects  could  not 
be  so  treated. 

Greasy  stains  may  be  removed  by  covering  them  with  a 
paste  of  chalk  and  potash  or  soda.  'The  alkali  will  convert 
the  grease  into  soap,  which  will  be  gradually  absorbed  by  the 
chalk  and  thus  removed.  In  such  cases,  however,  the  stains, 
especially  if  old,  may  require  a  long  time  and  several  repeti- 
tions of  the  process.  Alkalies  (potash,  soda  and  ammonia) 
may  be  applied  to  marble  without  injuring  it,  and  any  stains 
which  they  can  remove  may  be  taken  out  by  their  means. 

garble  is  easily  worked  either  on  the  bench  or  in  the  latuo 


92  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

In  the  latter  case,  however,  great  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid 
anything  like  a  heavy  cut,  since  marble  is  so  rigid  and  brittle 
that  if  the  cut  be  heavy  the  article  is  apt  to  be  broken.  The 
only  tool  that  can  be  used  is  a  steel  point,  tempered  to  a 
straw  color.  The  tool  requires  frequent  grinding,  and  when 
it  gets  broad  it  must  be  forged  over  again,  as  a  flat  tool  will 
not  turn  marble  at  all. 

For  working  and  finishing  marble  on  the  bench  the  follow- 
ing is  the  process  :  After  the  marble  is  sawn  into  slab,  the 
first  operation  is  to  grind  it  down  with  a  flat  coarse  sandstone 
and  water,  or  with  an  iron  plate,  fed  with  fine  sand  and  water, 
until  all  the  marks  of  the  saw  are  perfectly  removed ; 
secondly,  a  fine  sandstone  is  used  with  water  until  the 
marks  made  by  the  first  stone  are  removed;  thirdly,  a 
finer  sandstone  is  applied  to  work  out  the  marks  of  the 
former  ;  fourthly,  pumice  stone  with  water,  and  fifthly,  snake 
stone  is  used,  and  this  last  finishes  what  is  called  the 
grounding. 

Next  comes  the  polishing,  which  is  principally  performed 
with  rollers  of  woolen  cloth  or  list  made  to  the  size  of  about 
three  inches  diameter.  As  the  sixth  process,  a  rubber  is 
charged  with  flour  emery  and  a  moderate  degree  of  moisture  ; 
this  rubber  is  worked  uniformly  over  every  part  until  the 
marble  acquires  a  kind  of  greasy  polish;  seventh ly,  the  work 
is  completed  with  a  similar  roll  of  cloth  charged  with  putty 
powder  and  water.  Some  prefer,  as  the  polisher,  an  old 
cotton  stocking  not  made  into  a  rubber,  and  in  some  few  of  the 
more  delicate  works  crocus  is  used  intermediately  between 
the  emery  and  the  putty  powder.  It  is  necessary  to  wash 
the  marble  after  each  operation,  so  that  not  a  particle  of  the 
previous  polishing  material  may  remain,  otherwise  the  work 
will  be  scratched. 

The  dull  parts  of  sculpture  are  finished  in  four  different 
manners,  or  rather  the  complete  process  of  smoothing  is  dis- 
continued at  various  stages  so  as  to  form  four  gradations, 
which  may  be  described  as  follows  : 

First. — The  marble  is  sometimes  left  from  the  long  and 
very  slender  statuary's  chisel,  the  reverse  end  of  which  is 
formed  with  a  sharp  circular  edge  or  ridge,  just  like  a  hollow 
centre,  in  order  that  the  metal  hammer,  which  is  of  soft  iron, 
tin  or  zinc,  may  be  slightly  indented  by  the  chisel,  so  as  to 
avoid  its  glancing  off ;  the  chisel  marks  leave  the  surface 


THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION.  93 

somewhat  rough  and  matted,  intermediate  between  the 
granular  and  crystalline  character. 

Secondly. — For  surfaces  somewhat  smoother,  rasps  are  used 
to  remove  the  ridges  left  by  the  chisel ;  the  rasps  leave  a 
striated  or  lined  effect  suitable  for  draperies,  and  which  is 
made  more  or  less  regular  according  to  the  uniformity  of  the 
strokes,  or  the  reverse. 

Thirdly. — Files  are  employed  for  still  smoother  surfaces  of 
the  same  character  ;  and  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  files 
and  rasps  are  generally  curved  at  the  ends,  to  adapt  them  to 
the  curvilinear  forms  of  the  sculpture. 

Fourthly. — For  the  smoothest  of  the  dull  or  unpolished 
surfaces,  the  faint  marks  left  by  the  file  are  rubbed  out  with 
Trent  sand  or  silver  sand  and  water,  applied  by  means  of  a 
stick  of  deal  cut  to  a  point,  and  rubbed  all  over  the  work  in 
little  irregular  circles,  as  a  child  would  scribble  on  a  slate, 
and  if  the  end  of  the  stick  is  covered  with  two  or  three 
thicknesses  of  cloth  the  marble  receives  a  still  rounder  or 
softer  effect  than  from  the  naked  stick,  for  which  the  cabbage 
wood  or  partridge  wood  is  sometimes  used,  and  the  end  of  the 
stick  is  slightly  bruised,  so  that  the  fibres  of  the  wood  may 
assume  the  character  of  the  stiff  brush,  known  by  artists  as  a 
scrub." 

Mr.  Thomas  Smith  tells  us  that  he  has  successfully  copied 
the  minute  roughness  or  granulation  of  the  skin,  by  a  kind  of 
etching  which  he  was  induced  to  try,  by  imagining  that  ho 
could  trace  such  a  process  to  have  been  used  in  some  of  the- 
most  perfect  of  the  ancient  marbles  that  had  not  been  exposed 
to  the  open  air.  The  wrork  having  been  smoothed  with  sand, 
as  above,  he  takes  a  hard,  stubby  brush  and  therewith  dots 
the  marble  with  muriatic  acid,  and  which  quickly,  yet  par- 
tially, dissolves  the  surface.  The  strength  of  the  acid,  which 
must  not  be  excessive,  is  tested  upon  a  piece  of  waste  marble; 
the  brush  is  hastily  dipped  in  the  acid,  applied  to  the  work, 
quickly  rinsed  in  water,  and  then  used  for  removing  the  acid 
from  the  marble.  It  is  obvious  the  process  calls  for  a  certain 
admixture  of  dexterity  and  boldness,  and  sometimes  requires 
several  repetitions,  the  process  occupying  only  a  few  minutes 
each  time. 

Fifthly. — The  bright  parts  of  sculpture.  Few  of  the  works 
in  sculpture  are  polished,  and  such  as  are,  are  required  in  the 
first  instance  to  pass  through  the  four  stages  already  explained 


94  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

for  producing  the  smooth  but  dull  surface  ;  after  which, 
slender  square  pieces  of  the  second  gritstone  and  of  snake- 
stone  are  used  with  water  as  a  pencil,  and  then  fine  emery 
and  putty  powder  on  sticks  of  wood  ;  but  the  work  is  exceed- 
ingly tedious,  and  requires  very  great  care,  that  the  artistical 
character  of  the  work,  and  any  keen  edges  that  may  be  re- 
quired are  not  lost  in  the  polishing. 

Metals— Polishing. 

Metals  are  polished  either  by  burnishing  or  buffing.  The 
process  ot  burnishing  consists  in  rubbing  down  all  the  minute 
roughnesses  by  means  of  a  highly  polished  steel  or  agate 
tool — none  of  the  metal  being  removed. 

The  action  of  the  burnisher  appears  to  depend  upon  two 
circumstances  ;  first,  that  the  harder  the  material  to  be 
polished  the  greater  lustre  it  will  receive  ;  the  burnisher  is, 
therefore,  commonly  made  of  hardened  steel,  which  exceeds  in 
hardness  nearly  every  metallic  body.  And  secondly,  its 
action  depends  on  the  intimacy  of  the  contact  betwixt  the 
burnisher  and  the  work  ;  and  the  pressure  of  the  brightened 
burnisher  being,  in  reality,  from  its  rounded  or  elliptical 
section,  exerted  upon  only  one  mathematical  line  or  point  of 
the  work  at  a  time,  it  acts  with  great  pressure  and  in  a  man- 
ner distinctly  analogous  to  the  steel  die  used  in  making  coin; 
in  which  latter  case  the  dull  but  smooth  blank  becomes  in- 
stantly the  bright  and  lustrous  coin,  in  virtue  of  the  intimate 
contact  produced  in  the  coining  press  between  the  entire 
surface  of  the  blank  and  that  of  the  highly  polished  die. 

It  by  no  means  follows,  however,  that  the  burnisher  will 
produce  highly  finished  surfaces,  unless  they  have  been  pre- 
viously rendered  smooth,  and  proper  for  the  application  of 
this  instrument,  as  a  rough  surface,  having  any  file  marks  or 
scratches,  will  exhibit  the  original  defects,  notwithstanding 
that  they  may  be  glossed  over  with  the  burnisher  which 
follows  every  irregularity  ;  and  excessive  pressure,  which 
might  be  expected  to  correct  the  evil  as  in  coining,  only  fills 
the  work  with  furrows,  or  produces  an  irregular  indented 
surface,  which  by  workmen  is  said  to  be/V//  of  uttws. 

Therefore,  the  greater  the  degree  of  excellence  that  is  re- 
quired in  burnished  works,  the  more  carefully  should  they 
be  smoothed  before  the  application  of  the  burnisher,  and  this 
s|)ou]4  also  be  cleaned  on  a  buff  stick  with  crocus,  inv 


THE  WOBKSBOP  COMPANION.  95 

mediately  before  use ;  and  it  should  in  general  be  applied 
with  the  least  degree  of  friction  that  will  suffice.  Cutlers 
mostly  consider  that  burnishers  for  steel  are  best  rubbed  on 
a  buff  stick  Avith  the  finest  flour  emery  ;  for  silver,  however, 
they  polish  the  burnisher  with  crocus  as  usual.  Most  of  the 
metals,  previously  to  their  being  burnished,  are  rubbed  with 
oil  to  lessen  the  risk  of  tearing  or  scratching  them,  but  for 
gold  and  silver  the  burnisher  is  commonly  used  dry,  unless 
soap  and  water  or  skimmed  milk  are  employed  ;  and  for 
brass  furniture,  beer  or  water,  with  or  without  a  little  vinegar, 
is  preferred  for  lubricating  the  burnisher. 

Buffing  is  performed  by  rubbing  the  metal  with  soft  leather, 
which  has  been  charged  with  very  fine  polishing  powder. 
The  rubbing  is  sometimes  done  by  hand,  but  more  frequently 
the  buff  is  made  into  a  wheel  which  revolves  rapidly  in  a 
lathe  and  the  work  is  held  against  it. 

The  polishing  powder  that  is  selected  must  be  chosen  with 
special  reference  to  the  metal  that  is  to  be  buffed.  Thus,  for 
steel  and  brass  the  best  polishing  powder  is  crocus  or  rouge, 
which  may  be  purchased  of  any  dealer  in  tools,  or  may  be 
made  by  exposing  very  clean  and  pure  crystals  of  sulphate  of 
iron  to  heat,  according  to  the  directions  given  hereafter  under 
the  head  of  Polishing  Powders.  The  hardest  part  of  the 
rouge  must  be  selected,  and  great  care  must  be  taken  to  have 
it  clean  and  free  from  particles  of  dust  and  sand,  which  would 
inevitably  scratch  the  article  to  be  polished  and  render  it 
necessary  to  again  repeat  #11  the  previous  processes  of  filing, 
grinding,  etc. 

Soft  metals  like  gold  and  silver  may  be  polished  with  com- 
paratively soft  powders,  such  a*  prepared  chalk  or  putty 
powder  (oxide  of  tin). 

When  metals  are  to  be  polished  in  the  lathe  the  process  is 
very  simple.  After  being  turned  or  filed  smooth  the  article 
is  still  further  polished  by  means  of  fine  emery  and  oil,  ap- 
plied with  a  stick,  and  in  the  case  of  rods  or  cylinders,  a  sort  of 
clamp  is  used  so  that  great  pressure  can  be  brought  to  bear 
on  the  part  to  be  polished.  The  work  must  be  examined 
from  time  to  time  to  see  that  all  parts  are  brought  up  equally 
to  the  greatest  smoothness  and  freedom  from  scratches,  and 
as  fast  as  this  occurs  polishing  powder  of  finer  and  finer 
quality  is  used,  until  the  required  finish  is  attained. 

In  polishing    metals   or  anv  other  hard    substance^  by 


96  THE  WOBKSHOP  COMPANION. 

abrasion,  the  great  point  is  to  bring  the  whole  surface  up 
equally.  A  single  scratch  will  destroy  the  appearance  of  the 
finest  work,  and  it  cannot  be  removed  except  by  going  back 
to  the  stage  to  which  it  corresponds,  and  beginning  again 
from  that  point.  Thus,  if  in  working  with  a  smooth  file  we 
make  a  scratch  as  deep  as  the  cut  of  a  bastard  file,  it  is  of 
no  use  to  try  and  remove  this  scratch  with  the  smooth  file, 
we  must  go  back,  and  taking  a  bastard  file  make  the  surface 
as  even  as  possible  with  it,  and  afterwards  work  forward 
through  fine  files  and  polishing  powders. 

Mirrors. 

As  it  is  frequently  convenient  to  be  able  to  silver  a  piece  of 
glass  for  a  special  purpose,  we  quote  from  Faraday's  work  on 
Chemical  Manipulation,  the  following  directions  for  perform- 
ing this  operation  : 

A  piece  of  clean,  smooth  tinfoil,  free  from  holes,  is  to  be 
cut  to  the  same  size  as  the  glass  and  laid  upon  a  couple  of 
sheets  of  filtering  or  blotting  paper  folded  into  quarters.  A 
little  mercury  is  to  be  placed  on  the  foil,  and  rubbed  over  it 
with  a  hare's  foot,  or  with  a  ball  of  cotton  slightly  greased 
with  tallow,  until  the  whole  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf 
be  amalgamated  and  bright.  More  mercury  is  then  to  be 
added,  until  the  quantity  is  such  as  to  float  over  the  tinfoil. 
A  piece  of  clean  -writing  paper,  with  smooth  edges,  is  to  be 
laid  upon  the  mercury,  and  then  the  glass  surface,  previously 
well  cleaned,  is  to  be  applied  to  the  paper.  The  paper  is  to 
be  drawn  out  from  between  the  mercury  and  the  glass,  while 
a  slight  but  steady  pressure  is  to  be  applied  to  the  latter. 
As  the  paper  recedes  it  carries  all  air  and  dirt  with  it  from 
between  the  glass  and  the  metal,  which  come  into  perfect 
contact. 

The  mirror  is  now  made,  and  may  be  used  for  an  experi- 
ment ;  but  there  is  still  much  more  mercury  present  than  is 
required  to  make  the  definite  and  hard  amalgam  of  tin  con- 
stituting the  usual  reflecting  surface.  If  it  be  desired  to  re- 
move this  excess,  the  newly-formed  mirror  must  be  put  under 
the  pressure  of  a  flat  board,  in  a  slightly -inclined  position, 
and  loaded  with  weights. 

The  success  of  this  operation  will  be  found  to  depend 
chiefly  upon  the  care  exercised  in  cleaning  the  glass. 

g  Glass  Mirrors  for  Optical  Purposes. — This  is  best 


THE  WOBKSHOP  COMPANION.  97 

by  depositing  pure  silver  on  the  glass.  The  light 
reflected  from  a  mirror  made  thus  has  somewhat  of  a  yellowish 
tinge,  but  photometric  experiments  show  that  from  25  to  30 
per  cent,  more  light  is  reflected  than  from  the  old  mercurial 
mirrors. 

Where  ammonium  aldehyde  can  be  obtained,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  this  is  the  best  and  most  economical  process, 
whether  used  on  a  large  or  a  small  scale.  But  those  who 
have  not  had  considerable  experience  in  the  laboratory  can- 
not always  prepare  this  compound. 

The  next  best  process  is  based  upon  the  reduction  of 
metallic  silver  from  its  ammoniacal  solution  by  salts  Of  tartar. 
After  a  trial  of  several  formulas  of  this  kind,  all  of  them  more 
or  less  simple,  as  well  as  efficacious,  the  following  has  been 
found  to  yield  the  bast  results  in  the  shortest  time. 

Silvering  Solution. — In  1  ounce  of  distilled  or  pure  rain 
water,  dissolve  48  grains  of  crystalized  nitrate  of  silver. 
Precipitate  by  adding  strongest  water  of  ammonia,  and  con- 
tinue to  add  the  ammonia  drop  by  drop,  stirring  the  solution 
with  a  glass  rod,  until  the  brown  precipitate  is  nearly,  but 
not  quite  redissolved.  Filter,  and  add  distilled  water  to 
make  12  fluid  drachms. 

Reducing  Solution. — 1Dissolve  in  1  ounce  of  distilled  or 
very  clean  rain  water,  12  grains  of  potassium  and  sodium 
tartrate  (Eochelle  or  Seignette  salts).  Boil,  in  a  flask,  and 
while  boiling  add  2  grains  crystalized  nitrate  of  silver  dis- 
solved in  1  drachm  of  water.  Continue  the  boiling  rive  or 
six  minutes.  Let  cool,  filter,  and  add  distilled  water  to  make 
12  fluid  drachms. 

To  Silver. — Provision  must  be  made  for  supporting  the 
glass  in  a  perfectly  horizontal  position  at  the  surface  of  the 
liquid.  This  is  best  done  by  cementing  to  the  face  of  the 
mirror  three  nice  hooks  by  which  it  may  be  hung  from  a 
temporary  framework — easily  made  out  of  a  few  sticks. 

The  glass  to  be  silvered  must  be  cleansed  by  immersing 
it  in  strong  nitric  acid,  washing  in  liquor  potassse,  and  thor- 
oughly rinsing  with  distilled  water.  If  the  glass  has  had 
mercurial  amalgam  on  it,  it  will  probably  be  necessary  to 
clean  the  back  with  rouge.  On  having  this  surface  per- 
fectly, chemically  clean,  depends  in  a  great  measure  the  suc- 
cess of  the  operation. 

Having  arranged  the  contrivance  for  suspending  the  glass 


08  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

so  that  it  may  be  at  exactly  the  rig-lit  height  in  the  vessel 
that  is  to  receive  the  solution,  remove  this  vessel  and  pour 
into  it  enough  of  equal  quantities  of  the  two  solutions  to  fill 
it  exactly  to  the  previously  ascertained  level.  Stir  the  solu- 
tions so  that  they  will  become  thoroughly  mixed,  and  replace 
the  glass  to  be  silvered,  taking  great  care  that  the  surface  to 
be  silvered  shall  come  in  contact  with  the  silvering  fluid  ex- 
actly at  all  points.  The  glass  plate  should  be  rinsed  carefully 
before  replacing,  and  should  be  put  in  while  wet.  Great  care 
should  be  taken  that  no  air  bubbles  remain  on  the  surface  of 
the  solution,  or  between  it  and  the  surface  to  be  silvered. 

Now  set  the  vessel  in  the  sun  for  a  few  minutes,  if  the 
•weather  be  warm,  or  by  the  fire,  if  it  be  cold,  as  a  tempera- 
ture of  45°  to  50°  C.  (113°  to  122°  Fab.)  is  most  conducive 
to  the  rapid  deposition  of  a  brilliant,  firm  and  even  film  of 
silver.  The  fluid  in  the  sunlight  soon  becomes  inky  black, 
gradually  clearing  as  the  silver  is  reduced,  until  when  ex- 
hausted it  is  perfectly  clear.  The  mirror  should  be  removed 
before  this  point  is  reached,  as  a  process  of  bleaching  sets 
up  if  left  after  the  fluid  is  exhausted.  From  20  to  80  minutes, 
according  to  the  weather,  purity  of  chemicals,  etc.,  is  re- 
quired for  the  entire  process. 

When  the  mirror  is  removed  from  the  bath,  it  should  be 
carefully  rinsed  with  distilled  water  from  the  wash  bottle, 
and  laid  on  its  edge  on  blotting  paper  to  dry.  When  per- 
fectly dry,  the  back  should  be  varnished  with  some  elastic 
varnish  and  allowed  to  dry.  The  wires  and  cement  can  now 
be  removed  from  the  face,  and  the  glass  cleaned  with  a  little 
fledget  of  cotton  and  a  minute  drop  of  nitric  acid,  taking 
great  care  that  the  acid  does  not  get  to  the  edges  or  under 
the  varnish.  Rinse,  dry  and  the  mirror  is  finished. 

Silver  Amalgam  for  Mirrors. — The  great  objections  to 
mirrors  coated  with  pure  silver  are  the  yellow  character  of 
the  reflected  light,  and  the  fact  that  such  mirrors  are  apt  to 
be  affected  by  sulphur.  M.  Lenoir  has  invented  a  process 
which  is  said  to  avoid  these  difficulties.  The  glass  is  first 
silvered  by  means  of  tartaric  acid  and  ammoniacal  nitrate  of 
silver,  or  by  the  process  described  in  the  preceding  section, 
and  is  then  exposed  to  the  action  of  a  weak  solution  of  double 
cyanide  of  mercury  and  potassium.  When  the  mercurial 
solution  has  spread  uniformly  over  the  surface,  fine  zinc  dust 
is  powdered  over  it,  which  promptly  reduces  the  quicksilver, 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  99 

And  permits  it  to  form  a  white  and  brilliant  silver  amalgam, 
adhering  strongly  to  the  glass,  and  which  is  affirmed  to  be 
free  from  the  yellowish  tint  of  ordinary  silvered  glass,  and 
not  easily  affected  by  sulphurous  emanations. 

Care  of  Looking  Glasses. — When  looking  glasses  are  ex- 
posed to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  or  to  very  strong  heat 
from  a  fire  the  amalgam  is  apt  to  crystallize  antl  the  mirror 
loses  its  brilliancy.  If  a  mirror  is  placed  where  the  rays  of 
the  sun  can  strike  it,  it  should  be  covered  in  that  part  of  the 
day  during  which  it  is  exposed. 

The  best  method  of  cleaning  looking  glasses  is  as  follows  : 
Take  a  newspaper,  fold  it  small,  dip  it  into  a  basin  of  clean 
cold  water.  When  thoroughly  wet  squeeze  it  out  as  you  do 
a  sponge  ;  then  rub  it  pretty  hard  all  over  the  surface  of  the 
glass,  taking  care  that  it  is  not  so  wet  as  to  run  down  in 
streams  ;  in  fact,  the  paper  must  only  be  completely  moist- 
ened or  dampened  all  through.  Let  it .  rest  a  few  minutes, 
then  go  over  the  glass  with  a  piece  of  fresh  newspaper  till  it 
looks  clear  and  bright.  The  i  asides  of  windows  may  be 
cleaned  in  the  same  way ;  also  spectacle-glasses,  lamp-glasses, 
etc.  White  paper  that  has  not  been  printed  on  is  better; 
but  in  the  absence  of  that,  a  very  old  newspaper,  on  which 
the  ink -has  become  thoroughly  dried,  should  be  used. 
Writing  paper  will  not  answer. 

Nickel. 

This  is  by  far  the  most  valuable  metal  that  has  been 
brought  into  notice  during  the  past  few  years.  It  has  been 
long  familiar  to  chemists,  and  as  a  component  of  German 
silver,  electrum,  and  similar  alloys,  it  has  been  in  common 
use,  but  as  an  unalloyed  coating  for  other  metals  it  has  only- 
been  employed  for  about  ten  years. 

It  is  hard,  not  easily  corroded  by  acids,  and,  tinlike  silver, 
it  is  entirely  unaffected  by  sulphur.  In  addition  to  these 
valuable  qualities  it  has  one  of  special  importance  in  some 
cases,  and  that  is  the  ease  with  which  a  nickel  surface  slides 
over  any  other  smooth  body.  Hence,  for  the  sliding  parts  of 
telescopes,  microscopes,  etc.,  it  has  come  into  very  general 
use,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  it  will  prove  of  great  value 
in  the  case  of  slide  valves,  pistons,  etc. 

Nickel  is  almost  always  applied  as  a  coating  by  the  electro- 
plating process,  for  instructions  in  which  art  we  must  refer 


100  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

our  reaaers  to  any  good  work  on  the  art  of  electro-metal- 
lurgy. 

A  foreign  journal  gives  the  following  directions  for  nickel 
plating  Avithout  a  battery  :  To  a  solution  of  five  to  ten  per 
cent,  of  chloride  of  zinc,  as  pure  as  possible,  add  sufficient 
sulphate  of  nickel  to  produce  a  strong  green  color,  and  bring 
to  boiling  in  a  porcelain  vessel.  The  piece  to  be  plated, 
which  must  be  perfectly  bright  and  free  from  grease,  is  in- 
troduced so  that  it  touches  the  vessel  as  little  as  possible. 
Ebullition  is  continued  from  30  to  60  minutes,  water  being 
added  from  time  to  time  to  replace  that  evaporated.  During 
ebullition  nickel  is  precipitated  in  the  form  of  a  white  and 
brilliant  coating.  The  boiling  can  be  continued  for  hours 
without  sensibly  increasing  the  thickness  of  this  coating. 
As  soon  as  the  object  appears  to  be  plated  it  is  washed  in 
water  containing  a  little  chalk  in  suspension,  and  then  care- 
fully dried.  This  coating  may  be  scoured  with  chalk,  and  is 
very  adherent.  The  chloride  of  zinc  and  also  the  sulphate  of 
nickel  used  must  be  free  from  metals  precipitable  by  iron. 
If  during  the  precipitation  the  liquor  becomes  colorless, 
sulphate  of  nickel  should  be  added.  The  spent  liquor  may  be 
used  again  by  exposing  to  the  air  until  the  contained  iron  is 
precipitated,  filtering  and  adding  the  zinc  and  nickel  salts 
as  above.  Cobalt  also  may  be  deposited  in  the  same  manner. 

Noise— Prevention  of. 

To  those  who  carry  on  any  operations  requiring  much  ham- 
mering or  pounding,  a  simple  means  of  deadening  the  noise 
of  their  work  is  a  great  relief.  Several  methods  have  been 
suggested,  but  the  best  are  probably  these  : 

1.  Rubber  cushions  under  the  legs  of  the  work-bench. 
Chamber's  Journal  describes  a  factory  where  the  hammering 
of  fifty  coppersmiths  was  scarcely  audible  in  the  room  below, 
their  benches  having  under  each  leg  a  rubber  cushion. 

2.  Kegs  of  sand  or  sawdust  applied  in  the  same  way.     A 
few  inches  of.  sand  or  sawdust  is  first  poured  into  each  keg  ; 
on  this  is  laid  a  board  or  block  upon  which  the  leg  rests, 
and  round  the  leg  and  block  is  poured  fine  dry  sand  or  saw- 
dust.    Not  only  all  noise,  but  all  vibration  and  shock,   is 
prevented  ;  and  an  ordinary  anvil,  so  mounted,  may  be  used 
in  a  dwelling  house  without  annoying  the  inhabitants.     To 
amateurs,  whose  workshops  are  almost  always-  located  in 


THE  WORKSHOP 

dwelling  houses,  this  device  affords  a  cheap  and  simple  relief 
from  a  very  great  annoyance. 

Painting  Bright  Metals. 

When  paint  is  applied  to  bright  metals  like  tin  or  zinc,  it 
is  very  apt  to  peel  off.  This  difficulty  is  greatly  lessened  if 
the  metal  be  hot  when  the  paint  is  applied,  but  in  many 
cases  this  cannot  be  done.  In  such  cases  the  surface  of  the 
metal  should  be  corroded,  for  which  purpose  a  solution  of 
sulphate  of  copper,  acidulated  with  nitric  acid  answers  well. 
The  metal  should  be  washed  with  the  solution,  allowed  to 
stand  a  couple  of  hours,  and  then  washed  with  clean  water 
and  dried. 

Painting  the  Hours  on  Metal  Dials. — The  black  coloring 
matter  is  the  soot  obtained  by  holding  a  clean  copper  or 
sheet  metal  plate  over  the  flame  of  an  oil  or  petroleum  lamp 
(a  glowing  tool  serves  the  purpose  very  well).  As  soon  as  a 
sufficient  deposit  is  produced  it  is  collected  on  a  piece  of 
glass,  care  being  taken  not  to  mix  any  foreign  substance  with 
it.  A  few  drops  of  essence  of  lavender  are  then  poured  on 
the  soot  and  the  mixture  pounded  with  a  spatula.  This  done, 
just  sufficient  copal  varnish  is  added  to  give  the  composition 
a  proper. -thickness,  so  as  to  prevent  it  spreading  when  ap- 
plied. The  varnish  thus  prepared  is  put  on  by  means  of  a 
very  fine  brush.  To  secure  brilliancy  the  dial  is  drioJL  at  a 
slow  heat,  by  passing  it  lightly  over  a  spirit  flame,  the  reverse 
side  of  the  dial  being,  of  course,  the  only  part  exposed  to  the 
flame.  This  composition  must  be  made  in  quantities  large 
enough  for.  present  use  only,  as  it  dries  very  rapidly  and 
cannot  be  utilized  afterwards.  To  secure  good  results  this 
process  requires  some  experience,  which  can  only  be  obtained 
by  careful  experiments.  The  painting  especially  requires  a 
certain  aptitude  and  lightness  of  hand,  which  may,  however, 
soon  be  attained  by  strict  attention. 

This  process,  which  gives  very  excellent  results,  is  evi- 
dently applicable  to  a  great  variety  of  purposes. 

Paper. 

There  are  so  many  purposes  to  which  paper  is  applied  that 
a  small  volume  might  be  filled  with  a  description  of  them. 
The  following  are  those  which  will  probably  prove  most 
useful  to  the  amateur  : 

Adhesive  Paper. — Paper    in    sheets,   half    of   which    are 


102  TfiE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION". 

gummed  on  both  sides,  and  the  other  half  on  one  side,  and 
divided  into  strips  and  squares  of  different  sizes  by  perfora- 
tions, like  sheets  of  postage  stamps,  are  very  convenient  in 
many  ways — the  doubly-gummed  answering  for  fixing  draw- 
ings in  books,  labels  on  glass,  etc.  It  is  stated  that  the 
mixture  by  which  it  is  coated  is  prepared  by  dissolving  six 
parts  of  glue,  previously  soaked  for  a  day  in  cold  water,  two 
parts  of  sugar,  and  three  parts  of  gum  arabic,  in  twenty-four 
parts  of  water,  by  the  aid  of  heat. 

Barometer  Paper. — This  is  paper  impregnated  with  a  so- 
called  sympathetic  ink,  which  alters  its  color  by  a  change  of 
temperature.  The  most  delicate  substance  to  accomplish 
this  is  sulpliocyanide  of  cobalt,  originally  proposed  by  Grotthus. 
This  is  prepared  by  adding  an  alcoholic  solution  of  potassium 
Bulphocyanide  to  an  aqueous  solution  of  cobaltous  sulphate, 
until  no  more  potassium  sulphate  separates.  The  whole  is 
transferred  to  a  filter,  and  the  residue  on  the  filter  (potassium 
sulphate)  washed  with  alcohol.  The  dilute  filtrate  may  be 
used  as  it  is,  for  impregnating  paper,  or  it  may  be  concen- 
trated by  very  careful  evaporation  at  as  low  a  temperature  as 
possible.  The  salt  may  be  obtained  crystalline  by  removing 
the  alcoholic  menstruum  in  the  vacuum  of  an  air-pump.  It 
forms  violet  columns,  soluble  in  water  with  red  color.  Paper 
impregnated  with  the  alcoholic  solution,  or  on  which  tracings 
have  been  made  with  the  latter,  turns  reddish  in  dry  air,  but 
assumes  a  blue  color  at  the  slightest  elevation  of  temperature. 

Creases,  To  Take  out  of  Draining  Paper  or  Engravings. — Lay 
the  paper  or  engraving,  face  downwards,  on  a  sheet  of  smooth, 
unsized  Avhite  paper  :  cover  it  with  another  sheet  of  the  same, 
very  slightly  damped,  and  iron  with  a  moderately  warm  flat 
iron. 

Drawing  Paper,  To  Mount. — Sometimes  it  is  difficult  to  get 
a  drawing  on  a  sheet  of  paper  of  the  ordinary  sizes  when 
utretched  upon  a  board,  by  reason  of  the  waste  edges  used  to 
l;ecure  the  paper  firmly  ;  and  again,  in  stiff  papers,  such  as 
the  "Eggshell,"  so  called,  ordinaiy  mucilage  does  not  pos- 
sess sufficient  strength,  and  glue  has  to  be  substituted,  to  the 
annoyance  of  the  draughtsman.  The  following  is  a  very 
simple  way  of  obviating  these  difficulties  :  First  moisten  the 
paper  thoroughly  ;  then  lay  it  upon  the  board  in  proper 
position,  and,  with  blotting  paper,  remove  most  of  the  moist- 
ure for  a  distance  of  half  an  inch  or  thereabouts  from  the 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  103 

;  then  take  strips  of  Manila  paper  (not  too  stiff)  about 
one  and  a  half  inches  wide,  covered  on  one  side  with  niucil- 
age,  and  paste  them  down  on  both  paper  and  board,  allowing 
them  to  lui)  on  the  edges  of  the  sheet  about  half  an  inch. 
Koop  the  middle  of  the  sheet  thoroughly  wet  until  the 
mucilage  on  the  edges  has  sot,  when  the  whole  sheet  may  ba 
allowed  to  dry  gradually.  It  will  be  found  that  this  method 
is  quicker  and  surer  than  any  other,  and  is  of  great  use  where 
it  is  necessary  to  color  on  mounted  paper. 

Glass-Paper. — Paper  coated  with  glass  is  known  by  this 
name  just  as  paper  coated  with  fine  sharp  sand  is  called  sand- 
paper, and  paper  coated  with  emery  is  called  emery  paper. 
Paper  or  a  cheap  cloth  is  coated  with  thinnish  glue,  dusted 
heavily  and  evenly  with  glass-powder  of  the  proper  fineness, 
and  allowed  to  become  nearly  dry.  The  superfluous  powder 
is  then  shaken  off,  the  sheets  are  pressed  to  make  them  even, 
and  afterwards  thoroughly  dried. 

The  objection  to  ordinary  glass-paper  is  that  it  is  easily 
injured  by  heat  and  moisture.  If  the  glue  be  mixed  with  a 
little  bichromate  of  potassa  before  it  is  applied  to  the  cloth, 
and  exposed  for  some  time  to  strong  bright  sunshine  while  it 
is  drying,  it  will  become  insoluble  in  water. 

The  glue  may  also  be  rendered  insoluble  by  the  process  of 
tanning.  The  paper  or  cloth  is  first  soaked  in  a  solution  of 
taimic  acid  and  dried.  The  glue  is  then  applied,  the 
powdered  glass  dusted  on,  and  over  it  is  dusted  a  little  tannic 
acid.  If  the  glue  be  not  very  moist,  it  should  be  damped  by 
means  of  an  atomiser,  a  very  cheap  form  of  which  is  figured 
in  The  Young  Scientist,  vol.  2.  The  sheets  are  then  slowly 
dried  and  will  be  found  to  resist  moisture  very  thoroughly. 

Paper,  To  Prepare  for  Varnishing. — To  prevent  the  ab- 
sorption of  varnish,  and  injury  to  any  color  or  design  on  the 
paper,  it  is  necessary  to  first  give  it  two  or  three  coats  of 
size.  The  best  size  for  white  or  delicate  colors  is  made  by 
dissolving  a  little  isinglass  in  boiling  water,  or  by  boiling 
some  clean  parchment  cuttings  until  they  form  a  clear  solu- 
tion ;  then  strain  through  a  piece  of  clean  muslin.  It  may  be 
applied  with  a  clean  soft  paint  brush,  the  first  coat,  especially, 
very  lightly.  The  best  brush  for  this  purpose  is  the  kind 
used  by  varnishers  for  giving  the  finishing  flow  coats  of 
varnish,  wide,  flat  and  soft ;  or  where  there  is  much  danger 
of  injuring  a  design,  and  the  paper  article  will  allow  of  it,  it 


104  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

is  a  good  plan  for  the  first  coat,  to  pour  the  solution  into  a 
Vide,  flat  dish,  and  pass  the  paper  through  it  once,  and  back 
again,  and  then  hang  it  up  to  dry.  For  JOBS  delicate  pur- 
poses, a  little  light-colored  glue,  soaked  over  night  in.  enough 
water  to  cover  it,  and  then  dissolved  by  heat,  adding  hot 
water  enough  to  dilute  it  sufficiently,  will  make  an  excellent 
sizing. 

Pollen  Powder,  or  Paper  Powder. — Boil  white  paper  or 
paper  cuttings  in  water  for  five  hours.  Pour  off  the  water, 
pound  the  pulp  in  a  wedgwood  mortar,  and  pass  through  a 
tine  sieve.  This  powder  is  employed  by  the  bird  stuffers  to 
dust  over  the  legs  of  some  birds,  and  the  bills  of  others,  to 
give  them  a  powdery  appearance  ;  also  to  communicate  the 
downy  bloom  to  rough-coated  artificial  fruit,  and  other  pur- 
poses of  a  similar  nature  ;  it  makes  excellent  pounce. 

Tracing  Paper. — Tracing  paper  may  be  purchased  so 
cheaply  that  it  is  hardly  worth  while  to  make  it  ;  and  there 
is  a  very  fine,  tough  kind  now  in  market  which  may  be 
mounted  and  colored  almost  like  drawing  paper.  Those  who 
desire  to  prepare  some  for  themselves  will  find  that  the  follow- 
ing  directions  give  a  good  result.  The  inventor  of  the  pro- 
cess received  a  medal  and  premium  from  the  Society  of  Arts 
for  it. 

Open  a  quire  of  tough  tissue  paper,  and  brush  the  first 
sheet  with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  mastic  varnish  and  oil 
of  turpentine.  Proceed  Avith  each  sheet  similarly  and  dry 
them  on  lines  by  hanging  them  up  singly.  As  the  process 
goes  on,  the  under  sheets  absorb  a  portion  of  the  varnish,  and 
require  less  than  if  single  sheets  were  brushed  separately. 
The  paper,  when  dry,  is  quite  light  and  transparent,  and  may 
readily  be  written  on  with  ink. 

Transfer papei\ — This  is  useful  for  copying  patterns,  draw- 
ings, etc.  Designs  for  scroll  saws  may  be  copied  very  neatly 
by  means  of  it.  It  is  easily  made  by  rubbing  a  thin  but 
tough  unglazed  paper  with  a  mixture  of  lard  and  lampblack. 
The  copy  is  made  by  laying  a  sheet  of  the  transfer  or,  as  it 
is  sometimes  called,  manifold  paper,  over  a  clean  sheet  of 
drawing  or  writing  paper,  and  over  it  the  drawing  to  be 
copied.  The  Hues  of  the  drawing  are  then  carefully  traced 
with  a  fine  but  blunt  point,  and  the  pressure  along  the  lines 
transfers  to  the  clean  paper  underneath  a  perfect  copy.  To 
keep  the  under  side  of  the  drawing  or  pattern  clean,  a  sheet 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  105 

of  \issue  paper  may  be  placed  between  it  and  the  transfer 
paper. 

Water  Stains,  To  Remove  from  Engravings  or  Paper. — Fill  a 
largo  vessel  with  pure  water  and  dip  the  engraving  in,  waving 
it  backward  and  forward  until  thoroughly  wet.  Then  spread 
a  si  loot  of  clean  white  paper  on  a  drawing  board,  lay  the  en- 
graving on  it  and  fasten  both  to  the  board  with  drawing  pins. 
Expose  it  to  bright  sunshine,  keeping  it  nioist  until  the  stains 
disappear,  which  will  not  be  long.  This  is  simply  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  old  system  of  bleaching  linen. 

Waxed  Paper. — Paper  saturated  with  wax,  paraffin  or 
stearin  is  very  useful  for  wrapping  up  articles  which  should 
be  kept  dry  and  not  exposed  to  the  air.  Place  a  sheet  of 
stout  paper  on  a  heated  iron  plate,  and  over  this  place  the 
sheets  of  unglazed  paper — tissue  paper  does  very  well — that 
are  to  be  waxed.  Enclose  the  wax  or  paraffin  in  a  piece  of 
muslin,  and  as  it  melts  spread  it  evenly  over  the  paper. 

Patina. 

An  imitation  of  patina  for  bronze  objects  of  all  kinds  can 
be  produced  by  preparing  a  paint  of  carbonate  of  copper 
and  any  light  alcoholic  varnish,  and  applying  it  to  the  object 
with  a  -Crush.  This  green  color  penetrates  the  smallest  re- 
cesses, and  has,  when  dry,  the  appearance  of  patina.  Car- 
bonate of  copper  gives  a  blue  patina,  verdigris  a  light  green, 
and  intermediate  shades  of  color  can  be  obtained  by  mixing 
the  two. 

Patterns— To  Trace. 

There  are  various  methods  of  making  copies  of  patterns  on 
paper,  the  simplest  perhaps  being  the  use  of  the  tracing 
paper  described  on  another  page. 

When  a  few  duplicates  of  patterns  for  embroidery  are  re- 
quired, they  may  be  very  easily  made  by  hand  as  follows  : 

The  drawing  is  made  upon  paper  ;  then  lay  the  drawing 
upon  an  even  cloth,  and  perforate  all  the  lines  with  a  tine 
needle,  close  and  even.  Then  take  finely  powdered  charcoal, 
three  parts,  resin,  one  part  in  fine  powder  ;  mix  and  tie  it  in 
a  piece  of  porous  calico,  so  that  it  forms  a  dusting  bag.  Lay 
the  perforated  drawing  upon  your  material,  hold  down  with 
one  hand,  rub  the  dusting-bag  over  the  drawing  ;  the  dust 
will  fall  through  the  holes  and  form  the  drawing  on  the  ma- 
terial. Bemove  the  paper  drawing,  lay  blotting-paper  over 


106  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

the  dast  pattern,  and  go  over  it  with  a  warm  flat  iron 
The  heat  will  melt  the  resin  and  fix  the  drawing  on  the 
material. 

Pencils  as  a  Substitute  for  Ink. 

Aniline  pencils  have  been  in  use  for  some  time,  and  have 
given  good  satisfaction,  but  the  following  is  said  to  give  even 
better  results.  Pencils  made  after  the  following  formula 
give  a  very  black  writing,  capable  of  being  reproduced  by 
the  copying  machine,  and  which  does  not  fade  on  exposure 
to  light.  The  mass  for  these  pencils  is  prepared  as  follows  : 
10  pounds  of  the  best  logwood  are  repeatedly  boiled  in  10 
gallons  of  water,  straining  each  time.  The  liquid  is  then 
evaporated  down  till  it  weighs  10  pounds,  and  is  then 
allowed  to  boil  in  a  pan  of  stoneware  or  enamel.  To  the 
boiling  liquid,  nitrate  of  oxide  of  chrome  is  added  in  small 
quantities,  until  the  bronze-colored  precipitate  formed  at  first 
is  redissolved  with  a  deep  blue  coloration.  This  solution  is 
then  evaporated  in  the  water  bath  down  to  a  sirup,  with 
which  is  mixed  well  kneaded  clay  in  the  proportion  of  1  part 
of  clay  to  3£  of  extract.  A  little  gum  tragacanth  is  also 
added  to  obtain  a  proper  consistence. 

It  is  absolutely  necessary  to  use  the  salt  of  chrome  in  the 
right  proportion.  An  excess  of  this  salt  gives  a  disagreeable 
appearance  to  the  writing,  while  if  too  little  is  used  the  black 
matter  is  not  sufficiently  soluble. 

The  other  salts  of  chrome  cannot  be  used  in  this  prepara- 
tion, as  they  would  crystallize,  and  the  writing  would  scale 
off  as  it  dried. 

The  nitrate  of  oxide  of  chrome  is  prepared  by  precipitating 
a  hot  solution  of  chrome  alum  with  a  suitable  quantity  of 
carbonate  of  soda.  The  precipitate  is  washed  till  the  filtrato 
is  free  from  sulphuric  acid.  The  precipitate  thus  obtained 
is  dissolved  in  pure  nitric  acid,  so  as  to  leave  a  little  still 
undissolved.  Hence  the  solution  contains  no  free  acid, 
which  would  give  the  ink  a  dirty  red  color.  Oxalic  acid  and 
caustic  alkalies  do  not  attack  the  writing.  Dilute  nitrio 
acid  reddens,  but  does  not  obliterate  the  characters. 

Pencil  Marks— To  Fix. 

To  fix  Pencil  Marks  so  they  will  not  rub  out,  take  well- 
skimmed  milk  and  dilute  with  an  equal  bulk  of  waiur. 
Wash  the  pencil  marks  (whether  writing  or  drawing)  with 


THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION.  107 

this  liquid,  using  a  soft,  flat  camel-hair  brush,  and  avoiding 
all  rubbing.     Place  upon  a  flat  board  to  dry. 

Pewter. 

The  principal  constituents  of  pewter  are  lead  and  tin  ;  the 
proportions  of  the  two  metals  depending  somewhat  on  the 
use  to  which  the  alloy  is  put.  The  best  contains  but  16 
to  20  per  cent,  of  lead.  Of  this  plates  au;l  dishes  are  made, 
which  look  like  block  tin,  und  can  be  brightly  polished  by 
rubbing.  The  addition  of  more  lead  cheapens  the  com- 
modity, and  gives  it  a  dull  bluish  appearance.  In  France 
pewter  vessels  for  wine  and  vinegar  contain  18  per  cent,  of 
lead.  It  has  been  found  that  a  larger  proportion  of  that 
metal  in  utensils  for  this  purpose  \s  liable  to  result  in  the 
formation,  in  the  liquid,  of  the  poisonous  acetate  or  sugar  of 
lead. 

A  little  copper  added  in  making  pewter  hardens  the  com- 
poiuid  and  renders  it  sonorous,  so  that  toy  trumpets  and 
other  rude  musical  instruments  can  be  made  of  it.  If  the 
copper  is  replaced  by  antimony,  hardness  and  a  silvery  lustre 
are  the  result.  If  the  contents  of  the  melting  pot  are  stirred 
with  a  strip  half  of  xiuc  and  half  of  tin,  or  if  a  lump  of  zinc 
is  allowed  to  float  on  the  melted  metal  during  the  casting, 
the  vaporized  spelter  seems  to  protect  the  fluid  mass  from 
oxidation,  and  prevents  the  formation  of  dross.  Hence  it  is 
said  to  "  cleanse  "  the  mass. 

Jewellers  use  polishers  and  laps  of  pewter,  and  sheets  of 
the  article  are  to  some  extent  used  for  cheap  engraving, 
music  notes,  or  other  figures  being  stamped  upon  it  instead 
of  being  cut  with  a  burin  or  graver.  The  ease  with  which  it 
melts  causes  it  to  be  employed  by  tinsmiths  and  tinkers  for 
solder.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  set  pewter  dishes,  mugs, 
spoons,  lamps,  etc. ,  on  stoves  or  other  hot  bodies,  as,  if  left 
for  any  time,  they  are  liable  to  settle-  into  shapeless  lumps. 

Pillows  for  the  Sick  Room. 

Save  all  your  scraps  of  writing  paper,  old  envelopes,  old 
notes  of  no  use  for  keeping,  old  backs  of  notes,  etc.  Cut 
them  in  strips  about  one-half  inch  wide  and  two  inches  long, 
and  curl  them  well  with  an  old  penknife.  Make  a  pillow  case 
of  any  materials  you  have  ;  fill  it  with  your  curled  paper  mixed 
with  a  few  shreds  of  flannel.  Stuff  it  quite  full,  sew  up  the 
end  and  cover  as  you  please,  These  pillows  are  invaluable. 


108  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

4 

in  cases  of  fever,  as  they  keep  constantly  cool  and  allow  a 
circulation  of  air. 

Plaster  of  Paris. 

Plaster  of  Paris  is  a  well  known  material,  obtained  by  ex- 
posing tlie  purer  varieties  of  gypsum  or  alabaster  to  a  heat 
a  little  above  that  of  boiling  water,  when  it  becomes  a  fine, 
white  dry  powder.  Sometimes  the  gypsum  is  first  reduced 
to  a  fine  powder  and  then  heated  in  iron  pans,  and  in  this 
case  the  operation  is  sometimes  called  ''boiling"  plaster, 
because  the  escape  of  the  water,  with  which  crystalline  gyp- 
sum is  always  combined,  gives  to  the  fine  powder  the  appear- 
ance of  boiling.  Plaster  of  Paris,  after  being  boiled,  rapidly 
deteriorates  when  exposed  to  the  air,  consequently  when 
plaster  is  required  for  making  cements  or  for  other  purposes 
for  which  a  good  article  is  needed,  care  must  be  taken'  to 
secure  that  which  is  good  and  freshly  boiled.  The  Italian 
image  makers  always  use  a  superior  quality  of  plaster,  and  it 
may  generally  be  obtained  from  them  in  small  quantity. 

The  employment  of  gypsum,  in  casting,  and  in  all  cases 
where  impressions  are  required,  is  very  extensive.  A  thin 

a>  of  1  part  gypsum  and  2J  parts  water  is  made  ;  this  pulp 
ens  by  standing.  The  hardening  of  good,  well-burnt 
gypsum  is  effected  in  one  to  two  minutes,  and  more  quickly 
in  a  moderate  heat.  Models  are  made  in  this  substance  for 
galvano-plastic  purposes,  for  metallic  castings,  and  for  ground 
works  in  porcelain  manufacture.  The  object  from  which  the 
cast  is  to  be  taken  is  first  well  oiled  to  prevent  the  adhesion 
of  the  gypsum.  "When  greater  hardness  is  required  a  email 
quantity  of  lime  is  added  ;  this  addition  gives  a  very  marble- 
like  appearance,  and  the  mixture  is  much  employed  in  archi- 
tecture, being  then  known  as  gypsum-marble  or  stucco. 
The  gypsum  is  generally  mixed  with  lime  water,  to  which 
sometimes  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc  is  added,  After 
drying,  the  surface  is  rubbed  down  with  pumice  stone, 
colored  to  represent  marble,  and  polished  with  Tripoli  and 
olive  oil.  Artificial  scagliola  work  is  largely  composed  of 
gypsum. 

There  are  several  methods  of  hardening  gypsum.  One  of 
the  oldest  consists  in  mixing  the  burnt  gypsum  with  lime- 
water  or  a  solution  of  gum  arabic.  Another,  yielding  very 
good  results,  is  to  mix  the  gypsum  with  a  solution  of  20 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  109 

ounces  of  alum  in  6  pounds  of  water  ;  this  plaster  hardens 
completely  in  15  to  30  minutes,  and  is  largely  used  under 
the  name  of  marble  cement.  Parian  cement  is  gypsum 
hardened  by  means  of  borax,  1  part  borax  being  dissolved  in 
9  parts  of  water,  and  the  gypsum  treated  with  the  solution. 
Still  better  results  are  obtained  by  the  addition  to  this  solu- 
tion of  1  part  of  cream  of  tartar. 

The  hardening  of  gypsum  with  a  water-glass  solution  is 
found  difficult,  and  no  better  results  are  obtained  than  with 
ordinary  gypsum.  Fissot  obtains-  artificial  stone  from  gyp- 
sum by  burning  and  immersions  in  water,  first  for  half  a 
minute,  after  which  it  is  exposed  to  the  air  and  again  for  two 
to  three  minutesj  when  the  block  appears  as  a  hardened  stone. 
It  would  seem  from  this  method  that  the  augmentation  in 
hardness  is  due  to  a  new  crystalization.  Hardened  gypsum, 
treated  with  stearic  acid  or  with  paraffine,  and  polished, 
much  resembles  meerschaum  ;  the  resemblance  may  be  in- 
creased by  a  coloring  solution  of  gamboge  and  dragon's 
blood,  to  impart  a  faint  red-yellow  tint.  The  cheap  artificial 
meerschaum  pipes  are  manufactured  by  this  method. 

Poisons. 

Many  of  the  substances  used  in  the  arts  are  highly  poison- 
ous. Indeed,  some  of  the  most  virulent  poisons  are  em- 
ployed in  very  common  operations.  Thus  arsenic  is  used  for 
coloring  brass  ;  the  strong  acids  are  used  in  every  machine 
shop  and  foundry,  and  even  prussic  acid  may  be  occasionally 
produced  during  the  employment  of  prussiate  of  potash. 
The  extremely  poisonous  cyanide  of  potassium  is  used  by 
every  photographer  and  electroplater.  Even  into  the  house- 
hold, poisons  too  frequently  find  their  way.  Our  matches  aro 
tipped  with  a  strong  poison,  and  housekeepers  are  often  too 
ready  with  poison  for  the  destruction  of  vermin.  Phos- 
phorous, arsenic  and  corrosive  sublimate,  are  too  frecjrently  ; 
tljus  used.  Paris  green  also  we  have  actually  seen  used  for  j 
the  destruction  of  cockroaches  in  pantries,  and  corrosive 
sublimate  is  in  Common  use  as  a  poison  for  bed-bugs.  As  a 
bug  poison  it  is  generally  dissolved  in  alcohol  or  whiskey, 
and  the  odor  and  taste  have  sometimes  proved  a  strong 
temptation  to  persons  who  did  not  fully  realize  its  dangerous 
character.  All  bottles  containing  such  mixtures  should 
(herefore  be  carefully  labelled,  "POISON,"  in  large  letters, 


110  THE  WOBKSHOP  COMPANION. 

and  \v.nen  emptied  they  should  either  be  broken,  or  very 
carefully  cleansed,  since  accidents  have  arisen  from  careless 
persons  pouring  drinkable  liquids  into  bottles  that  have 
e  mtained  solutions  of  corrosive  sublimate,  which  solutions, 
after  drying  up  have  left  the  bottle  apparently  empty,  but  in 
r  -ality  containing  an  amount  of  poison  sullicient  to  destroy 
several  lives. 

In  all  cases  where  poisons  have  been  swallowed,  the  propsr 
course  is  first  to  neutralize  the  deleterious  agent,  and  thru  to 
procure  its  rejection  by  means  either  of  the  stomach-pump 
or  an  emetic.  The  stomach-pump  is,  of  course,  the  best  and 
most  expeditious  agent.  It  requires  but  a  few  moments  to 
insert  it  and  remove  the  contents  of  the  stomach  ;  fresh  sup- 
plies of  water  and  the  proper  antidotes  can  then  be  pomvd 
into  the  organ,  so  that  in  a  few  minutes  the  last  traces  of  the 
poison  can  be  removed'  But  as  the  stomach-pump  is  to  b  i 
found  in  the  possession  of  physicians  only,  reliance  must  in 
general  be  placed  upon  emetics,  of  Avhich  the  best  is,  un- 
questionably, mustard — an  article  Avhich  is  to  be  found  in 
almost  every  household.  It  is  generally  conceded  by  physi- 
cians that  mustard  is  the  mildest,  most  rapid,  and  most 
efficient  emetic  known.  It  is  prepared  for  use  as  follows  : 
Take  about  a  plump  dessert-spoonful  of  genuine  flour  of 
mustard  (if  it  be  mixed  with  wheat  flour  or  turmeric,  more 
will  be  needed),  and  mix  it  rapidly  in  a  cup  with  water  to 
the  consistency  of  thin  gruel,  and  let  this  be  swallowed 
without  delay  or  hesitation.  In  a  very  few  seconds  the  con- 
tents of  the  stomach  will  be  ejected.  Before  the  emetic 
action  has  entirely  ceased,  a  little  lukewarm  water,  or  still 
bitter,  warm  milk,  should  be  forced  down.  This  will  be 
thrown  off  immediately,  and  will  serve  to  rinse  out  the 
stomach  and  remove  the  last  traces  of  deleterious  matter. 

By  the  time  the  operation  of  the  emetic  has  ceased,  a  phy- 
sician will  probably  be  in  attendance,  and  to  his  care  tho 
patient  should  be  at  once  confided. 

The  following  notes  on  special  poisons  will  prove  useful : 

Strong  Acid. — Where  nitric,  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric 
acid  has  been  swallowed,  it  is  well  to  administer  carbonate 
of  soda  before  giving  the  emetic. 

Oxalic  Acid. — This  acid  is  often  found  among  the  articles 
provided  for  household  use.  being  used  for  cleaning  brass 
and  various  metals,  as  well  as  for  removing  stains  of  ink  and 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  Ill 

iron  mould.  In  former  times  it  was  used  for  cleaning  boot 
tops  and  for  some  other  purposes.  In  appearance  it  re- 
isembles  epsom  salts  so  closely  that  even  experienced  chemists 
might  be  deceived,  if  it  were  not  for  the  taste,  for  while  tho 
acid  is  intensely  sour  the  salts  are  as  intensely  bitter. 

The  proper  antidote  to  oxalic  acid  is  some  form  of  lime, 
and  the  best  method  of  administering  it  is  to  mix  finely 
pulverized  chalk  with  water  to  the  consistency  of  cream  and 
swallow  it.  It  is  a  singular  fact  that  when  oxalic  acid  is 
largely  diluted  with  water,  it  acts  very  rapidly  and  energeti- 
cally, destroying  life  almost  with  the  rapidity  of  prussic 
acid.  Hence  to  administer  soapy  water,  or  any  other  very 
diluted  remedy,  would  be  almost  fatal.  And  yet  this  course 
was  actually  recommended  by  a  popular  scientific  journal. 

Prussic  Acid. — As  this  is  one  of  the  most  rapid  of  all 
poisons  in  its  action,  prompt  and  energetic  measures  are  de- 
manded. Cold  affusion  to  the  head  and  spine  has  been  found 
the  most  efficacious  mode  of  treatment.  Internal  remedies 
appear  to  be  of  no  service.  The  vapor  of  ammonia  may  be 
cautiously  applied  to  the  nostrils,  and  stimulating  liniments 
by  friction  to  the  chest  and  abdomen,  but  unless  the  dose  is 
small,  and  the  patient  is  seen  early,  there  can  be  little  hope 
of  benefit  from  any  treatment.  Certain  chemical  substances 
(cyanides)  from  which  prussic  acid  is  slowly  evolved  by  the 
action  of  the  air,  are  used  in  electro-plating  and  in  photo- 
graphy. These  substances  are  themselves  very  strong  poisons, 
and  if  accidentally  swallowed  they  cause  death  with  such 
rapidity  that  there  is  scarcely  any  time  to  apply  any  remedies. 
Green  copperas  (sulphate  of  iron)  dissolved  in  water  and  ad- 
ministered would  decompose  and  neutralize  the  poison,  after 
which  the  directions  given  for  prussic  acid  should  be  followed. 
When  poisoning  occurs  from  breathing  the  vapors  arising 
from  these  salts,  it  is  caused  by  prussic  acid,  and  should  be 
treated  accordingly. 

Arsenic — Paris  Green. — By  arsenic  is  generally  meant  tha 
white  oxide  of  the  metal  arsenic.  It  is  also  known  as  arsenious 
acid.  Paris  green  is  well  known  and  owes  its  deadly  proper- 
ties to  arsenic.  In  all  cases  in  which  poisonous  doses  of 
arsenic  have  been  swallowed,  our  great  dependance  must  bo 
placed  upon  emetics  and  purgatives.  Persons  who  take 
arsenic  upon  a  full  stomach  frequently  escape  its  effects,  and 
therefore  it  is  always  well  to  give  copious  draughts  of  milk, 


112  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

or,  if  more  convenient,  raw  eggs,  beaten  np.  Then,  as  soon 
as  possible,  administer  an  emetic  (mustard  is  as  good  as  any) 
and  keep  up  its  action  by  giving  milk  during  the  intervals 
of  the  paroxysms  of  vomiting.  When  the  stomach  no  longer 
rejects  what  is  swallowed,  give  a  good  dose  of  castor  oil. 

Corrosive  Sublimate.- — When  corrosive  sublimate  has  been 
swallowed,  the  first  thing  to  be  done  is,  if  possible,  to  get 
rid  of  it,  either  by  means  of  emetics  or  the  stomach-pump. 
If  the  poison  has  been  taken  on  a  full  stomach,  an  emetic  or 
tho  pump  is  the  first  thing  in  order  ;  if  the  stomach  be  empty, 
it  will  be  better  to  administer,  in  the  first  place,  as  much 
white  of  egg,  or  milk,  or  mixture  of  both,  as  the  patient  can 
be  made  to  swallow,  and  immediately  afterwards  give  an 
emetic.  The  white  of  eggs  is  the  great  antidote  for  corrosive 
sublimate,  but  it  is  of  no  use  where  the  poison  has  been  ab- 
sorbed into  the  system,  and  if,  after  administering  white  of 
eggs,  we  neglect  to  procure  its  rejection,  the  compound  that 
is  formed  may  be  destroyed  by  the  action  of  the  gastric  juice, 
and  left  free  to  act  with  all  its  original  virulence. 

Phosphorous. — There  is  no  efficient  antidote  or  remedy  for 
poisoning  by  phosphorous.  Taylor  recommends  the  admin- 
istration of  emetics,  and  of  albuminous  or  mucilaginous 
drinks,  holding  hydrate  of  magnesia  suspended.  The  exhibi- 
tion of  oil  would  be  decidedly  injurious,  as  this  dissolves  and 
tends  to  diffuse  the  poisonv  Saline  purgatives  should  there- 
fore be  preferred. 

Opium. — When  a  poisonous  dose  of  opium  has  been  taken, 
the  first  object  should  be  to  remove  the  poison,  and  this  must 
frequently  be  accomplished  by  the  stomach-pump,  as  emetics 
are  of  little  service  wl^en  the  patient  has  lost  the  power  of 
swallowing.  Dashing  cold  water  on  the  head,  chest,  and 
spine,  has  been  adopted  with  great  success  ;  in  the  treatment 
of  infants,  the  plunging  of  the  body  into  a  warm  bath,  and 
suddenly  removing  it  from  the  water  into  the  cold  air,  has 
been  found  a  most  effectual  method  of  rousing  them.  Severe 
whipping  on  the  palms  of  the  hands  and  soles  of  the  feet  or 
the  back  has  also  been  successfully  employed.  A  common 
plan  for  rousing  an  adult  is  to  keep  him  in  continual  motion, 
by  making  him  walk  between  two  assistants.  Above  all  things, 
the  tendency  to  fall  into  a  state  of  lethargy  must  be  prevented. 
A  strong  decoction  of  coffee  has  been  frequently  employed  as 
ti  stimulant  to  promote  recovery,  and  apparently  with  benefit. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  113 

Strychnine. — When  this  poison  has  been  absorbed  and  con- 
veyed into  the  blood  there  is  no  known  antidote  to  its  action. 
3>ut  if  spasms  have  not  already  set  in  so  as  to  close  the  ja\vs, 
\ve  should,  by  the  stomach-pump  or  by  emetics,  endeavor  to 
romove  the  poison.  In  a  case  in  which  six  grains  of  strychnine 
Avere  taken,  the  life  of  the  person  appears  to  have  been  saved 
by  the  early  use  of  the  stomach-pump.  It  has  been  supposed 
that  emetics  would  not  act  in  these  cases  ;  but  this  is  an 
error  based  on  imperfect  observation.  In  one  case  a  man 
took  three  grains  of  strychnine,  dissolved  in  rectified  spirits 
and  diluted  sulphuric  acid.  He  went  to  bed  and  slept  for 
about  an  hour  and  a  half,  Avhen  he  awoke  in  a  spasm,  utter- 
ing loud  cries,  which  alarmed  the  household..  Free  vomiting 
was  brought  on  by  the  use  of  emetics,  and  this,  combined 
Avith  other  treatment,  led  to  his  recovery.  The  first  step, 
therefore,  in  every  case,  should  be  to  induce  vomiting. 

Ivy  Poisoning. — -The  best  remedy  for  ivy  poisoning  is  said 
to  be  SAveet  spirits  of  nitre.  Bathe  the  parts  affected  freely  Avith 
this  fluid  three  or  four  times  during  the  day,  and  the  next 
morning  scarcely  any  trace  of  poison  will  be  found.  If  the 
blisters  be  broken,  so  as  to  allow  the  spirits  to  penetrate  the 
cuticle,  a  single  application  Avill  be  sufficient. 

Sttngs. — Extract  the  sting,  Avhich  is  always  left  behind  by 
bees,  and  bathe  the  parts  with  cold  water,  or  apply  a  good 
poultice  of  common  clay  nmd.  Liquid  ammonia  mixed  either 
Avith  the  water  or  the  mud,  will  prove  of  service.  All  lini- 
ments which  require  rubbing  are  bad,  as  tending  to  irritate 
the  part  and  diffuse  the  poison.  Above  all,  avoid  scratching 
the  wound. 

Polishing  Powders. 

Nothing  is  more  necessary  to  the  successful  use  of  polish- 
ing poAvder  than  equality  in  the  grain.  Fine  dust  clogs  the 
action  of  coarse  grinding  po\vders,  and  prevents  them  from 
cutting  Avith  rapidity  the  object  to  be  ground  ;  coarse  parti- 
cles mixed  with  fine  polishing  poAvder  scratch  the  article  to 
be  polished,  and  render  grinding  and  polishing  necessary 
again.  To  secure  fineness  and  uniformity  no  process  equals 
that  of  elutriatioii,  Avhich  is  thus  performed  :  Suppose  it 
were  desired  to  separate  the  ordinary  flour  of  emery  into 
three  different  degrees  of  fineness.  Take  three  vessels  (sucli  as 
tin  pails  or  glass  jars)  and  mix  the  emery  with  a  large 


114  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION,       

quantity  of  water — say  a  quart  of  water  to  l£  6z.  of  emery. 
Stir  the  mixture  until  the  emery  is  thoroughly  diffused 
through  the  liquid,  and  allow  to  stand  five  minutes.  By  this 
time  all  the  heavier  particles  will  have  settled,  and  on  pour- 
ing the  fluid  into  a  second  jar  only  the  finer  portion  will  bo 
carried  over.  So  continue  to  wash  the  first  residuum  until 
nearly  all  the  particles  have  subsided  at  the  end  of  five 
minutes,  and  the  water  is  left  comparatively  clear.  You  will 
now  have  the  coarse  portion,  No.  1,  by  itself. 

So,  from  the  sediment  collected  from  the  washings  of  No.  1, 
you  may  collect  a  portion,  No.  2,  having  a  second  degree  of 
coarseness.  The  last  and  finest  will  be  obtained  by  letting 
the  final  washings  stand  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  pouring  olf 
the  liquid  and  allowing  it  to  settle. 

The  principal  polishing  powders  are  chalk  or  wanting, 
crocus  or  rouge,  emery,  oilstone  powder,  and  putty  or  tutty, 
Avhich  latter  consists  chiefly  of  oxide  of  tin.  Other  powders, 
such  as  tripoli,  bath-brick,  sand,  etc.,  are  rarely  used  for  tho 
finer  kinds  of  work.  Emery  is  so  well  known  that  it  docs 
not  need  description. 

Chalk  or  Whiting. — Chalk  is  a  native  carbonate  of  lime, 
consisting  of  the  remains  of  minute  creatures  known  as/br- 
amimfera,  and  when  simply  scraped  or  crushed  under  a 
hammer  or  runner,  it  is  sometimes  used  for  polishing  such 
soft  substances  as  bone,  ivory,  etc.  As  it  contains  particles 
of  silica  of  varying  size,  it  cuts  freely,  but  is  apt  to  scratch. 
To  remove  the  gritty  particles,  the  chalk  is  ground,  and  the 
finer  parts  separated  by  washing.  It  then  becomes  whiting, 
which  is  generally  sold  in  lumps.  Whiting  has  very  poor 
cutting  qualities,  and  it  is  therefore  used  chiefly  as  plate 
powder  for  cleaning  gold,  silver,  glass,  etc.,  and  for  absorb- 
ing grease  from  metals  which  have  been  polished  bv  other 
means. 

Prepared  Chalk. — This  is  a  manufactured  article,  pre- 
pared by  adding  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda  to  a  solution 
of  chloride  of  calcium  (both  cheap  salts),  so  long  as  a  precip- 
itate is  thrown  down.  The  solutions  should  be  carefully 
filtered  through  paper  before  being  mixed,  and  dust  should 
be  rigorously  excluded.  The  white  powder  which  falls 
down  is  carbonate  of  lime,  or  chalk,  and  when  carefully 
washed  and  dried,  it  forms  a  most  excellent  polishing  powder 
for  the  softer  metals.  The  particles  are  almost  impalpable, 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  115 

but  seem  to  be  crystalline,  for  they  polish  quickly  and 
smoothly,  though  they  seem  to  wear  away  the  material  so 
little  that  its  form  or  sharpness  is  not  injured  to  any  per- 
ceptible degree. 

Crocus  or  Rouge. — These  articles  are  manufactured  at 
Liverpool,  by  persons  who  make  it  their  sole  occupation,  in 
the  following  manner  : 

They  take  crystals  of  sulphate  of  iron  (green  vitriol  or 
copperas),  immediately  from  the  crystallizing  vessels,  in  the 
copperas  works  there,  so  as  to  have  them  as  clean  as  possible  ; 
and  instantly  put  them  into  crucibles  or  cast  iron  pots,  and 
expose  them  to  heat,  without  suffering  the  smallest  particle 
of  dust  to  get  in,  which  would  have  a  tendency  to  scratch 
the  articles  to  be  polished.  Those  portions  which  are  leant 
calcined  and  are  of  a  scarlet  color,  are  fit  to  make  rouge  for 
polishing  gold  or  silver,  while  those  which  are  calcined  or 
have  become  red-purple  or  bluish-purple,  form  crocus  lit  for 
polishing  brass  or  steel.  Of  these,  the  bluish-purple  colored 
parts  are  the  hardest,  and  are  found  nearest  to  the  bottom  of 
the  vessels,  and  consequently  have  been  exposed  to  the 
greatest  degree  of  heat. 

Mr.  ~  Andrew  Ross's  mode  of  preparing  Oxide  of  Iron. — 
Dissolve  crystals  of  sulphate  of  iron  in  water ;  filter  the 
solution  to  separate  some  particles  of  silex  which  are  gen- 
erally present,  and  sometimes  are  abundant ;  then  precipitate 
from"  this  filtered  solution  the  protoxide  of  iron,  by  the  addi- 
tion of  a  saturated  solution  of  soda,  which  must  also  be 
filtered.  This  grey  oxide  is  to  be  repeatedly  washed  and 
then  dried  ;  put  it  in  this  state  into  a  crucible,  and  very 
gradually  raise  it  to  a  dull  red  heat ;  then  pour  it  into  a 
clean  metal  or  earthen  dish,  and  while  cooling  it  will  absorb 
oxygen  from  the  atmosphere,  and  acquire  a  beautiful  dark 
red  color.  In  this  state  it  is  fit  for  polishing  the  softer 
metals,  as  silver  and  gold,  but  will  scarcely  make  any  impres- 
sion on  hardened  steel  or  glass.  For  these  latter  purposes  I 
discovered  that  it  is  the  black  oxide  that  affected  the  polish 
(and  this  gives  to  the  red  oxide  a  purple  hue,  which  is  used 
as  the  criterion  of  its  cutting  quality  in  ordinary),  therefore 
for  polishing  the  harder  materials  the  oxide  must  be  heated 
to  a  bright  red,  and  kept  in  that  state  until  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  it  is  converted  into  black  oxide  to  give  the  mass 
a  deep  purple  hue  when  exposed  to  the  atmosphere.  I  have 


116  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

converted  the  whole  into  black  oxicle  ;  but  this  is  liable  to 
scratch,  and  does  not  work  so  pleasantly  as  when  mixed  with 
the  softer  material.  The  powder  must  now  be  levigated 
with  a  soft  wrought  iron  spatula,  upon  a  soft  iron  slab,  and 
afterwards  washed  in  a  very  weak  solution  of  gain  arabic,  as 
recommended  by  Dr.  Green  in  his  paper  on  specula.  The 
oxide  prepared  in  this  manner  is  almost  impalpable,  and 
free  from  all  extraneous  matter,  and  has  the  requisite  quality 
in  an  eminent  degree  for  polishing  steel,  glass,  the  softer 
gems,  etc. 

Lord  Ross's  Mode  of  preparing  the  Peroxide  of  Iron. — 
"I  prepare  the  peroxide  of  iron  by  precipitation  with  water 
of  ammonia  from  a  pure  dilute  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron  ; 
the  precipitate  is  washed,  pressed  in  a  screw  press  till  nearly 
dry,  and  exposed  to  a  heat  which  in  the  dark  appears  a  dull 
low  red.  The  only  points  of  importance  are,  that  the  sul- 
phate of  iron  should  be  pure,  that  the  water  of  ammonia 
should  be  decidedly  in  excess,  and  that  the  heat  should 
not  exceed  that  I  have  described.  The  color  will  be  a  bright 
crimson  inclining  to  yellow.  I  have  tried  both  soda  and 
potash,  pure,  instead  of  water  of  ammonia,  but  after  washing 
with  some  degree  of  care,  a  trace  of  the  alkali  still  remained, 
and  the  peroxide  was  of  an  ochrey  color  till  overheated,  and 
did  not  polish  properly." 

Oilstone  Powder. — The  Turkey  oilstone  can  hardly  be  con- 
sidered as  a  hone  slate,  having  nothing  of  a  lamellar  or  schis- 
tose appearance.  As  a  whetstone  it  surpasses  every  other 
known  substance,  and  possesses,  in  an  eminent  degree,  the 
property  of  abrading  the  hardest  steel,  and  is,  at  the  same 
time,  of  so  compact  and  close  a  nature  .as  to  resist  the 
pressure  necessary  for  sharpening  a  graver  or  other  small 
instrument  of  that  description.  Little  more  is  known  of  its 
natural  history  than  that  it  is  found  in  the  interior  of  Asia 
Minor,  and  brought  down  to  Smyrna  for  sale.  The  white 
and  black  varieties  of  Turkey  oilstone  differ  but  little  in 
their  general  characters  ;  the  black  is,  however,  somewhat 
harder,  and  is  imported  in  larger  pieces  than  the  white. 

Fragments  of  oilstone,  when  pulverized,  sifted  and  washed, 
are  much  in  request  by  mechanicians.  This  abrasive  is 
generally  preferred  for  grinding  together  those  fittings  of 
mathematical  instruments  and  machinery,  which  are  made 
wholly  or  in  part  of  brass  or  gun  metal,  for  oilstone  being 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  117 

softer  and  more  pulverulent  than  emery,  is  less  liable  to  be- 
come embedded  in  the  metal  than  emery,  which  latter  is  then 
apt  continually  to  grind,  and  ultimately  damage  the  accuracy 
of  the  fittings  of  brass  works.  In  modern  practice  it  is  usual, 
however,  as  far  as  possible,  to  discard  the  grinding  together 
of  surfaces,  with  the  view  of  producing  accuracy  of  form,  or 
precision  of  contact. 

Oilstone  powder  is  preferred  to  pumice-stone  powder  for 
polishing  superior  brass  works,  and  it  is  also  used  by  the 
watchmaker  on  rubbers  of  pewter  in  polishing  steel. 

Pumice-stone  Powder. — Pumice-stone  is  a  volcanic  product, 
and  is  obtained  principally  from  the  Campo  Bianco,  one  of 
the  Lipari  islands,  which  is  entirely  composed  of  this  sub- 
stance. It  is  extensively  employed  in  various  branches  of  the 
arts,  and  particularly  in  the  state  of  powder,  for  polishing 
the  various  articles  of  cut  glass  ;  it  is  also  extensively  used 
in  dressing  leather,  and  in  grinding  and  polishing  the  surface 
of  metallic  plates,  etc. 

Pumice-stone  is  grcrtmd  or  crushed  under  a  runner,  and 
sifted,  and  in  this  state  it  is  used  for  brass  and  other  metal 
works,  and  also  for  japanned,  varnished  and  painted  goods, 
for  which  latter  purposes  it  js  generally  applied  on  woolen 
cloths  with  water. 

Putty  Powder  is  the  pulverized  cxide  of  tin,  or  generally 
of  tin  and  lead  mixed  in  various  proportions.  The  process 
of  manufacture  is  alike  in  all  cases — the  metal  is  oxidized  in 
an  iron  muffle,  or  a  rectangular  box,  close  on  all  sides, 
except  a  square  hole  in  the  front  side.  The  retort  is  sur- 
rounded by  fire,  and  kept  at  a  red  heat,  so  that  its  contents 
are  partially  ignited,  and  they  are  continually  stirred  to 
expose  fresh  portions  to  the  heated  air  ;  the  process  is  com- 
plete when  the  fluid  metal  entirely  disappears,  and  the 
upper  part  of  the  oxide  then  produced,  sparkles  somewhat 
like  particles  of  incandescent  charcoal.  The  oxide  is  then 
removed  with  ladles,  and  spread  over  the  bottom  of  large 
iron  cooling  pans  and  allowed  to  cool.  The  lumps  of  oxide 
which  are  as  hard  as  marble,  are  then  selected  from  the 
mass  and  ground  dry  under  the  runner ;  the  putty  powder 
is  afterwards  carefully  sifted  through  lawn. 

As  a  criterion  of  quality  it  may  be  said  that  the  whitest 
putty  powder  is  the  purest,  provided  it  be  heavy.  Some  of 
the  common  kinds  are  brown  and  yellow,  while  others,  from 


118  THE  AVOEKSHOP  COMPANION. 

the  intentional  admixture  of  a  little  ivory  l>lack,  are  known 
as  grey  putty.  The  pure  white  putty  which  is  used  by  mar- 
ble workers,  opticians  and  some  others,  is  the  smoothest  and 
most  cutting  ;  it  should  consist  of  the  oxide  of  tin  alone,  but 
to  lessen  the  difficulty  of  manufacture,  a  very  little  lead  (the 
linings  of  tea  chests),  or  else  an  alloy  called  shruff  (pre- 
pared in  ingots  by  the  pewterers)  is  added  to  assist  the 
oxidation. 

The  putty  powder  of  commerce  of  good  fair  quality,  is 
made  of  about  equal  parts  of  tin  and  lead,  or  tin  and  shruff ; 
the  common  dark  colored  kinds  are  prepared  of  lead  only, 
but  these  are  much  harsher  to  the  touch,  and  altogether 
inferior. 

Perhaps  the  most  extensive  use  of  putty  powder,  is  in  glass 
and  marble  works,  but  the  best  kind  serves  admirably  as 
plate  powder,  and  for  the  general  purposes  of  polishing. 

Putty  powder  for  fine  optical  purposes  is  prepared  by 
Mr.  A.  Boss  by  the  following  method,  which  is  the  result  of 
many  experiments.  Metallic  tin  is  dissolved  in  nitra-muriatic 
acid,  and  precipitated  from  the  filtered  solution  by  liquid 
ammonia,  both  fluids  being  largely  diluted  with  water.  The 
peroxide  of  tin  is  then  washed  in  abundance  of  water,  col- 
lected in  a  cloth  filter,  and  squeezed  as  dry  as  possible  in  a 
piece  of  new  clean  linen  ;  the  mass  is  now  subjected  to 
pressure  in  a  screw-press,  or  between  lever  boards,  to  make  it 
as  dry  as  possible.  When  the  lump  thus  produced  has  been 
broken  in  pieces  and  dried  in  the  air,  it  is  finally  levigated 
while  dry  on  a  plate  of  glass  with  an  iron  spatula,  and  after- 
wards exposed  in  a  crucible  to  a  low  white  heat. 

Before  the  peroxide  has  been  heated,  or  while  it  is  in  the 
levigated  hydrous  state,  the  putty  powder  possesses  but  little 
cutting  quality,  as  under  the  microscope,  the  particles  then 
appear  to  have  no  determined  form,  or  to  be  amorphous, 
and,  on  being  wetted,  to  resume  the  gelatinous  condition  of 
the  hydrous  precipitate,  so  as  to  be  useless  for  polishing  ; 
whereas,  when  the  powder  is  heated,  to  render  it  anhydrous, 
most  of  the  particles  take  their  natural  form,  that  of  lamellar 
oystals,  and  act  with  far  more  energy  (yet  without  scratch- 
ing) than  any  of  the  ordinary  polishing  powders.  The  whole 
mass  requires  to  be  washed  or  elutriated  in  the  usual  manner 
after  having  been  heated,  in  order  to  separate  the  coarser 
particles. 


THE  WOBK8HOP  COMPANION.  119 

Mr.  Boss  usually  adds  a  little  crocus  to  the  putty  powder 
by  way  of  coloring  matter,  as  it  is  then  easier  to  learn  the 
quantity  of  powder  that  remains  on  the  polishing  tool,  and 
it  may  be  added  that  this  is  the  polishing  powder  employed 
by  Mr.  Boss  in  making  his  improved  achromatic  object- 
glasses  for  astronomical  telescopes, 

Vienna  Lime. — •  Vienna  lime  and  alcohol  give  a  beautiful 
polish  to  iron  or  steel.  Select  the  soft  pieces  of  lime,  such 
as  will  be  easily  crushed  by  the  thumb  and  linger,  as  they 
are  the  most  free  from  gritty  particles.  Apply  with  a  cork, 
piece  of  soft  pine  wood,  leather,  chamois,  etc. 

Resins. 

The  resins  are  so  frequently  employed  in  the  arts  that  a 
knowledge  of  the  action  of  different  solvents  upon  them  is  of 
great  value. 

Dr.  Sac,  of  Neuenberg,  Switzerland,  has  made  an  extensive 
inquiry  into  the  nature  of  different  resins.  The  following 
results,  as  obtained  by  him,  are  given  in  Dingler's  Poly- 
technic Journal : — The  resins  spoken  of  are  copal,  amber, 
dammar,  common  resins,  shellac,  elemi,  sandarach  and 
mastic.  All  these  resins  can  be  reduced  to  powder. 

The  following  will  become  pasty  before  melting  :  Amber, 
shellac-, "elemi,  sandarach  and  mastic  ;  the  others  will  become 
liquid  at  once. 

In  boiling  water  common  resin  will  form  a  semi-fluid  mass  ; 
dammar,  shellac,  elemi  and  mastic  will  become  sticky  ;  while 
copal,  amber  and  sandarach  will  remain  unchanged. 

Dammar  and  amber  do  not  dissolve  in  alcohol ;  copal  bo- 
conies  pasty  ;  elemi  dissolves  with  difficulty,  while  resin, 
shellac,  sandarach  and  mastic  dissolve  easily. 

Acetic  acid  makes  common  resin  swell ;  on  all  the  others 
it  has  no  effect. 

Caustic  soda  dissolves  shellac  ic»dily  ;  resin  partly  ;  but 
has  no  influence  on  the  others. 

Amber  and  shellac  do  not  dissolve  in  sulphide  of  carbon  ; 
copal  becomes  soft  and  expands  ;  elemi,  sandarach  and  mastic 
dissolve  slowly  ;  while  resin  and  dammar  dissolve  easily. 

Oil  of  turpentine  dissolves  neither  amber  nor  shellac,  but 
swells  copal ;  dissolves  dammar,  resin,  elemi  and  sandarach 
easily,  and  mastic  very  easily. 

Benzol  does  not  dissolve  copal,  amber  and  shellac,   but 


120  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

does  elemi  and  sandarach  to  a  limited  extent ;  while  dammar, 
resin  and  mastic  offer  no  difficulty. 

Petroleum  ether  lias  no  effect  on  copal,  amber  and  shellac  ; 
it  is  a  poor  solvent  for  resin,  elemi  and  sandarach,  and  a  good 
one  for  dammar  and  mastic. 

Concentrated  sulphuric  acid  dissolves  all  resins,  imparting 
to  them  a  dark  brown  color,  excepting  dammar,  which  takes 
a  brilliant  red  tint. 

Boiling  linseed  oil  has  no  effect  on  copal  and  amber ; 
shellac,  elemi  and  sandarach  dissolve  easily. 

Nitric  acid  imparts  to  elemi  a  dirty  yellow  color  ;  to  mastic 
and  sandarach  a  light  brown  ;  it  does  not  affect  the  others. 

Ammonia  is  indifferent  to  amber,  dammar,  shellac  (?)  and 
elemi  ;  copal,  sandarach  and  mastic  become  soft,  and  finally 
dissolve  ;  while  resin  will  dissolve  at  once. 

Saws. 

The  grand  secret  of  putting  any  saw  in  the  best  possible 
cutting  order,  consists  in  filing  the  teeth  at  a  given  angle  to 
cut  rapidly,  and  of  a  uniform  length,  so  that  the  points  will 
all  touch  a  straight-edged  rule  without  showing  a  variation 
of  a  hundredth  part  of  an  inch.  Besides  this,  there  should 
be  just  enough  set  in  the  teeth  to  cut  a  kerf  as  narow  as  it 
can  be  made,  and  at  the  same  time  allow  the  blade  to  work 
freely  without  pinching.  On  the  contrary,  the  kerf  must  not 
be  so  wide  as  to  permit  the  blade  to  rattle  when  in  motion. 
The  very  points  of  the  teeth  do  the  cutting.  If  one  tooth  is 
a  twentieth  of  an  inch  longer  than  tAvo  or  three  on  each  side 
of  it,  the  long  tooth  will  be  required  to  do  so  much  more 
cutting  than  it  should,  that  the  sawing  cannot  be  done  well. 
Hence  the  saw  goes  jumping  along,  working  hard  and  cutting 
slowly.  If  one  tooth  is  longer  than  those  on  either  side  of 
it,  the  short  ones  do  not  cut,  although  the  points  may  be 
sharp  "Then  putting  a  cross-cut  saw  in  order,  it  will  pay 
well  fo  dress  the  •  points  with  an  old  file,  and  afterwards 
sharpen  them  with  a  fine  whetstone.  Much  mechanical  skill 
is  requisite  to  put  a  saw  in  prime  order.  One  careless  thrust 
with  a  file  will  shorten  the  point  of  a  tooth  so  much  that  it 
will  be  utterly  useless,  so  far  as  cutting  is  concerned.  The 
teeth  should  be  set  with  much  care,  and  the  filing  should  be 
done  with  great  accuracy.  If  the  teeth  are  uneven  at  the 
points  a  large  flat  file  should  be  secured  to  a  block  of  wood 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  121 

in  such  a  manner  that  the  very  points  only  may  be  jointed, 
so  that  the  cutting  edge  of  the  same  may  be  in  a  complete 
line  or  circle.  Eveiy  tooth  should  cut  a  little  as  the  saw  is 
worked.  The  teeth  of  a  handsaw,  for  all  sorts  of  work, 
should  be  filed  fleaming,  or  at  an  angle  on  the  front  edge  ; 
while  the  back  edge^  may  be  filed  fleaming,  or  square  across 
the  blade.  The  befit  way  to  file  a  circular  saw  for  cutting 
wood  across  the  grain,  is  to  dress  every  fifth  tooth  square 
across  and  about  or?  3-twentieth  of  an  inch  shorter  than  the 
others,  which  shou' d  be  filed  fleaming  at  an  angle  of  about 
forty  degrees. 

Sieves. 

It  is  often  desirable  to  sift  powders  into  different  degrees 
of  fineness,  and  very  fine  sieves  are  not  always  to  be  easily 
had.  Those  made  of  hair  and  wire  answer  well,  but  the 
finest  may  be  made  out  of  the  bolting  cloth  used  by  millers. 
It  may  be  sewed  over  a  hoop  of  tin  or  brass,  or  even  a  ring 
made  of  iron  wire,  or  a  piece  of  flexible  wood  bent  into  form 
may  answer  to  hold  the  cloth. 

Shellac. 

Shellac  or  lac  is  a  resinous  substance  which,  in  India, 
flows  from  certain  trees  in  the  form  of  lucid  tears,  in  conse- 
quence of  punctures  made  upon  their  branches  by  a  small 
insect. 

It  is  found  in  commerce  in  three  forms — slick  lac,  seed  lac 
and  shellac.  Stick  lac  is  the  substance  in  its  natural  state  in- 
vesting the  small  twigs  of  the  trees,  which  are  generally 
broken  off  in  collecting  it.  When  separated  from  the  twigs 
and  partially  cleansed  it  is  known  as  seed  lac.  Shellac  is  the 
seed  lac  after  it  has  been  melted,  purified  and  formed  into 
thin  cakes. 

Shellac  is  very  apt  to  be  adulterated  with  common  resin, 
and  hence,  unless  when  a  pale  lacquer  is  required,  most 
artisans  prefer  seed  lac.  When  lac  is  mixed  with  a  little 
resin  and  colored  with  verrnillion  or  ivory  black  it  forms 
sealing  wax. 

Shellac  is  soluble  in  alcohol  but  not  in  turpentine.  It  is 
also  soluble  in  alkaline  solutions,  including  ammonia.  A 
solution  of  borax  in  water  dissolves  it  readily,  and  the  result- 
ing solution  lias  been  used  as  a  cement,  as  a  varnish,  and  as  a 


122  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

bas;s  for  indelible  ink.  It  is  much  used  by  hatters  as  an  in- 
soluble cement. 

Clarifying  Shellac  Solutions. — Much  trouble  is  generally  ex- 
perienced in  obtaining  clear  solutions  of  shellac.  If  a  mixture 
of  1  part  shellac  with  7  parts  of  alcohol  of  90  per  cent,  is 
heated  to  a  suitable  temperature,  it  quickly  clears,  but  as 
quickly  becomes  turbid  again  on  cooling.  The  only  practical 
method  of  freeing  the  solution  from  what  some  writers  call 
"wax,"  and  others  "fatty  acid,"  which  is  present  in  shellac 
in  the  proportion  of  1  to  5  per  cent.,  and  is  the  cause  of  the 
turbidity,  has  hitherto  been  the  tedious  process  of  repeated 
nitration.  M.  Peltz  recommends  the  following  method : 
Shellac  1  part  is  dissolved  in  alcohol  8  parts,  and  allowed  to 
stand  for  a  few  hours.  Powdered  chalk  is  then  added  in 
quantity  equal  to  half  the  weight  of  shellac  in  the  solution, 
and  the  latter  is  heated  to  60°  E.  The  greater  portion  of  the 
solution  clears  rapidly,  and  the  remainder  may  be  clarified 
by  once  filtering.  Carbonate  of  magnesia  and  sulphate  of 
baryta  were  tried  in  the  same  way,  but  were  not  found  equally 
efficacious. 

Bleached  Shellac. — When  bleached  by  the  ordinary  process, 
shellac  affords  a  polish  for  light  woods,  etc.,  that  is  brittle 
and  liable  to  peel  off,  while  the  presence  of  a  trace  of  chlorine 
causes  metallic  inlaying  to  become  dim.  These  defects  may 
be  avoided  by  a  different  mode  of  bleaching,  namely,  by 
adding  fine  granulated  bone-black  to  the  solution  of  shellac 
in  90  per  cent,  alcohol,  until  a  thin,  pasty  mass  is  formed, 
and  exposing  this  for  several  days  to  direct  sunlight,  occa- 
sionally shaking  it  thoroughly  and  filtering  when  sufficiently 
bleached. 

Silver. 

Pure  silver  is  quite  soft,  and  is,  therefore,  generally  alloy  eel 
with  copper  to  harden  it, 

Silversmiths'  worl^,  after  having  been  filed  is  generally 
rubbed,  firstly,  with  a  lump  of  pumice-stone  and  Avater ; 
secondly,  with  a  slip  of  water-of-Ayr  stone  and  water ; 
thirdly,  a  revolving  brush  with  rottenstone  and  oil ;  fourthly, 
an  old  black  worsted  stocking  with  oil  and  rottenstone,  and 
fifthly,  it  is  finished  with  the  hand  alone,  the  deep  black 
lustre  being  given  with  rouge  of  great  fineness.  The  corn  erg 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  123 

and  edges  are  often  burnished  with  a  steel  burnisher,  which 
is  lubricated  with  soap  and  water  if  at  all. 

In  this  case  and  in  all  others  of  polishing  with  the  naked 
hand,  it  is  generally  found  that  women  succeed  better  than 
men,  and  that  some  few,  from  the  peculiar  texture  and  con- 
dition of  the  skin,  greatly  excel  in  the  art  of  polishing.  The 
skin  should  be  soft  and  very  slightly  moist,  as  the  polishing 
powder  then  attaches  itself  conveniently,  and  there  is  just 
sufficient  adhesion  between  the  hand  and  work  to  make  the 
operation  proceed  rapidly.  A  dry  hand  becomes  hard  and 
horny,  and  is  1  *ble  to  scratch  the  work,  and  excess  of  moist- 
ure is  alsc  obj  ctionable,  as  the  hand  is  then  too  slippery. 

The  plated  reflectors  for  light-houses  are  cleaned  with 
rouge,  which  is  dusted  on  from  a  muslin  bag,  and  rubbed 
over  them  with  a  clean  dry  wash-leather. 

A  thin  film  of  oxide  will  nevertheless  occasionally  form  on 
the  surface  of  the  reflector,  and  this  is  removed  with  a  piece 
of  leather,  with  rouge  moistened  with  spirits  of  wine,  which 
dissolves  the  oxide,  after  which  the  dry  rubber  is  applied  as 
above. 

Oxidized  Silver. — This  is  not  an  oxidization,  but  a  combi- 
nation with  sulphur  or  chlorine.  Sulphur,  soluble  sulphides, 
and  hydrosulphuric  acid  blacken  silver,  and  insoluble  silver 
salts,  and  particularly  the  chloride  of  silver,  rapidly  blackens 
*by  solar  light.  Add  four  or  five  thousandths  of  hydrosul- 
phate  of  ammonia,  or  of  quintisulphide  of  potassium,  to 
ordinary  water  at  a  temperature  of  160°  to  180°  Fahr.  When 
the  articles  are  dipped  into  this  solution  an  iridescent  coating 
of  silver  sulphide  covers  them,  which,  after  a  few  seconds 
more  in  the  liquid,  turns  blue-black,  llemove,  rinse,  scratch- 
brush,  and  burnish  when  desired.  Use  the  solution  when 
freshly  prepared,  or  the  prolonged  Aeat  will  precipitate  too 
much  sulphur,  and  the  deposit  will  be  wanting  in  adherence  ; 
besides,  the  oxidization  obtained  in  freshly-prepared  liquors 
is  always  brighter  and  blacker  than  that  produced  in  old 
solutions,  which  is  dull  and  grey.  If  the  coat  of  silver  is  too 
thin,  and  the  liquor  too  strong,  the  alkaline  sulphide  dissolves 
the  silver,  and  the  underlying  metal  appear  In  this  case 
cleanse  and  silver  again,  and  use  a  weaker  blacl  *ming  solu- 
tion. Oxidized  parts  and  gilding  may  be  put  upon  the  same 
article  by  the  following  method  :  After  the  whole  surface  has 
been  gilt  certain  portions  arc  covered  with  the  resist  varnish  ; 


124  .    THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

9 

silver  the  remainder.  Should  the  process  of  silvering  by- 
paste  and  cold  rubbing  be  employed,  the  gilding  should  be 
very  pale,  because  it  is  not  preserved,  and  is  deeply  reddened 
by  the  sulphur  liquor.  When  this  inconvenience  occurs 
from  a  too  concentrated  liquor,  it  is  partly  remedied  by 
rapidly  washing  the  article  in  a  tepid  solution  of  cyanide  of 
potassium.  v 

A  very  beautiful  effect  is  produced  upon  the  surface  of 
silver  articles,  technically  termed  oxidizing,  which  gives  the 
surface  an  appearance  of  polished  steel.  This  can  be  easily 
effected  by  taking  a  little  chloride  of  platinum,  heating  the 
solution  and  applying  it  to  the  silver  where  an  oxidized  sur- 
face is  required,  and  allowing  the  solution  to  dry  upon  the 
silver.  The  darkness  of  the  color  produced  varies  according 
to  the  strength  of  the  platinum  solution  from  a  light  steel 
gray  to  nearly  black.  The  effect  of  this  process,  when  com- 
bined with  what  is  termed  dead  work,  is  very  pretty,  and 
may  be  easily  applied  to  medals,  and  similar  objects. 

The  high  appreciation  in  which  ornaments  in  oxidized 
silver  are  now  held,  renders  a  notice  of  the  following  pro- 
cesses interesting.  There  are  two  distinct  shades  in  use — • 
one  produced  by  a  chloride  and  which  has  a  brownish  tint, 
and  the  other  produced  by  sulphur,  which  has  a  bluish-  black 
tint.  To  produce  the  former  it  is  necessary  to  wash  the 
article  with  a  solution  of  sal  ammoniac ;  a  much  more 
beautiful  tint  may,  however,  be  obtained  by  employing  a 
solution  composed  of  equal  parts  of  sulphate  of  copper  and 
sal  ammoniac  in  vinegar.  The  fine  black  tint  may  be  pro- 
duced by  a  slightly  warm  solution  of  sulphuret  of  potassium 
or  sodium. 

The  chloride  of  platinum  mentioned  above  is  easily  pre- 
pared as  follows  :  Take  1  part  nitric  aoid  and  2  parts  hydro- 
chloric (muriatic)  acid ;  mix  together  and  add  a  little 
platinum  ;  keep  the  whole  at  or  near  a  boiling  heat ;  the 
metal  is  soon  dissolved,  forming  the  solution  required.  , 

Old  Silvering. — To  imitate  old  artistic  productions  made 
of  solid  silver,  the  groundwork  and  hollow  portions  not 
subject  to  friction  are  covered  with  a  blackish-red,  earthy 
coat,  the  parts  in  relief  remain  with  a  bright  lead  lustre. 
Mix  a  thin  paste  of  finely  powdered  plumbago  with  essence 
of  turpentine,  to  which  a  small  portion  of  red  ochre  may  be 
gelded  to  imitate  the  copper  tinge  of  certain  old  silverware ; 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  125 

smear  this  all  over  the  articles.  After  drying,  gently  nib 
with  a  soft  brush,  and  the  reliefs  are  set  off  by  cleaning  with 
a  rag  dipped  in  spirits  of  wine. 

To  give  the  old  silver  tinge  to  small  articles,  such  as 
buttons  and  rings,  throw  them  into  the  above  paste,  rub  in  a 
bag  with  a  large  quantity  of  dry  boxwood  sawdust  until  the 
desired  shade  is  obtained. 

Cleaning  Silver. — Silver  being  a  comparatively  soft  metal, 
should  never  be  rubbed  with  polishing  powders  capable  of 
cutting  or  grinding,  as  the  delicate  surface,  especially  if 
engraved  or  ornamented,  will  be  sure  to  have  the  delicate 
lines  and  work  injured.  In  cleaning  silver  there  are  but  two 
things  that  ever  require  to  be  removed — dirt  and  the  sulplmret 
of  silver.  The  latter  appears  as  a  coating  on  all  silver  articles 
exposed  to  the  air,  and  especially  on  silver  spoons  etc. ,  which 
have  come  in  contact  with  sulphur  or  the  yolk  of  eggs. 
Sulplmret  or  sulphide  of  silver  is  soluble  in  several  salts, 
especially  cyanide  of  potassium,  hyposulphite  of  soda,  and 
several  salts  of  ammonia.  Therefore,  to  clean  silver  which 
has  been  blackened  with  sulphur,  the  best  plan  is  to  dissolve 
off  the  sulphide  by  means  of  some  of  the  chemicals  named. 

For  the  ordinary  purposes  of  cleansing  silver  the  best 
material  is  a  thin  paste  of  alcohol,  2  parts  ;  ammonia,  1  part ; 
and  whiting  enough  to  make  a  liquid  like  cream.  This 
should  be  smeared  or  painted  over  the  silver  and  allowed  to 
stand  until  dry.  If  then  brushed  off  with  a  very  fine  brush 
the  silver  will  appear  clear  and  bright.  The  alcohol  and 
ammonia  dissolve  all  dirt  and  sulphide,  which  are  then  ab- 
sorbed by  the  whiting  and  removed  with  it. 

Where  really  good  whiting,  that  is  to  say,  an  article  that  is 
soft  or  free  from  grit,  cannot  be  procured,  starch  may  be 
used. 

Ink  Stains,  To  Remove  from  Silver — The  tops  and  other 
portions  of  silver  inkstands  frequently  become  deeply  dis- 
colored with  ink,  which  is  difficult  to  remove  by  ordinary 
means.  It  may,  however,  be  completely  eradicated  by  making 
a  little  chloride  of  lime  into  a  paste  with  water,  and  rubbing 
it  upon  the  stains.  ^ 

To  Dissolve  the  Silver  off  old  Plated  GoocU. — Mix  1  oz.  of 
finely  powdered  saltpetre  with  10  oz.  sulphuric  acid,  and 
steep  the  goods  in  this  mixture.  If  diluted  with  water  it 
acts  on  copper  and  other  metals,  but  if  very  strong  it  to- 


126  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

solves  the  silver  only,  and  may  be  used  to  dissolve  silver  off 
plated  goods  without  affecting  the  other  metals. 

Silvering. 

Leather,  cloth,  wood  and  similar  materials  are  silvered 
by  processes  similar  to  those  used  for  gilding,  silver  leaf 
being  substituted  for  gold  leaf.  Metals  may  be  silvered 
either  by  brazing  a  thin  sheet  of  silver  to  the  surface,  or  by 
electro-plating.  Frequently,  however,  it  is  desired  to  lightly 
silver  a  metal  surface,  such  as  brass  or  copper,  so  as  to  make 
any  figures  engraved  thereon  appear  more  distinct.  Clock 
faces,  dials  and  the  scales  of  thermometers  and  barometers 
are  cases  in  point,  and  if  the  surface  be  well  lacquered  with 
white  lacquer  after  being  silvered,  such  a  coating  is  very 
durable.  Silvering  fluids  or  powders  containing  mercury 
should  never  be  used  unless  the  articles  are  to  be  afterwards 
exposed  to  a  red  heat  so  as  to  drive  off  the  mercury.  A 
silvering  fluid  which  is  very  commonly  sold  to  housekeepers 
under  the  name  of  Nonurgent  or  Plate  Renovator,  consists 
merely  of  nitrate  of  mercury  or  quicksilver.  When  rubbed 
on  a  copper  cent  or  a  brass  stair-rod  it  give^  it  at  once  a 
bright  silvery  surface,  but  the  brightness  soon  fades  and  the 
article,  if  brass,  becomes  black  and  dirty,  Avhile  if  it  should 
be  a  piece  of  plated  ware  it  will  be  ruined.  Stair-rods  and 
similar  articles,  if  well  silvered  with  powder  No.  1,  and  then 
lacquered  with  good  lacquer,  will  present  a  white  silvery  ap- 
pearance for  a  long  time.  Plated  goodp  should  be  re-coated 
by  the  electro-plating  process. 

Silvering  Poicder. — 1.  Nitrate  of  silver,  30  grains  ;  com- 
mon salt,  30  grains  ;  cream  tartar,  200  grains.  Mix.  Moisten 
with  water  and  rub  on  the  article  with  wash  leather.  Gives 
a  white  silvery  appearance  to  brass,  copper,  etc. 

2.  Novargent. — Add  common  salt  to  a  solution  of  nitrate 
of  silver  until  the  silver  has  all  been  precipitated.    Wash  the 
white  precipitate  or  chloride  of  silver  and  add  a  strong  solu- 
tion of  hyposulphite  of  soda  until  the  white   chloride   is 
dissolved/   Mix   the   resulting   clear  liquid   with   j>ipe-clay 
which  has  been  finely  powdered  and  thoroughly  washed. 

3.  1  oz.  of  nitrate"  of  silver   dissolved  in  1  quart  of  rain 
or  distilled  water.     When  thoroughly  dissolved,  add  a  few 
crystals  of  hyposulphite  of  soda,  which  will  at  first  form  a 
jbrpwn  precipitate,  but  which  reclissojves  if  sufficient  hvpq- 


THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION.  127 

sulphite  has  been  employed.  The  solution  may  be  used  by 
simply  dipping  a  sponge  in  it,  and  rubbing  it  over  the  article 
to  be  coated.  A  solution  of  gold  may  be  made  and  used  in 
the  same  manner. 

4.  Silvering  Amalgam. — A  coating  of  silver,  heavier  than 
can  be  obtained  by  the  above,  may  be  given  by  the  follow- 
ing process :  Precipitate  silver  from  its  solution  in  nitric 
acid  by  means  of  copper.  Take  of  this  powder  £  oz.  ;  common 
salt,  2  oz.  ;  sal  ammoniac,  2  oz. ;  and  corrosive  sublimate,  1 
drachm.  Make  into  a  paste  with  water.  Having  carefully 
cleaned  the  copper  surface  that  is  to  be  plated,  boil  it  in  a 
solution  of  tartar  and  alum,  rub  it  with  the  above  paste, 
heat  red  hot  and  then  polish. 

Size. 

The  size  used  for  filling  the  pores  of  plaster,  wood,  cloth, 
paper,  etc.,  for  the  purpose  of  preparing  it  to  receive  paint 
or  varnish,  is  usually  made  from  glue.  Where  large  quanti- 
ties are  used  the  size  is  obtained  in  barrels  from  the  glue 
factory,  and  as  the  trouble  and  expense  of  concentrating  it 
into  cakes  is  thus  avoided,  it  may  be  obtained  at  a  very  cheap 
rate. ..  Size  may  be  made  by  any  one  from  clippings  of  skins, 
tendons,  etc.,  boiled  down  to  jelly  and  carefully  freed  from 
fat.  Very  fine  size  is  prepared  from  parchment  clippings. 
Where  size  is  made  from  glue  the  following  directions  will 
prove  useful  : 

Sizing  f  or  Window  Shades. — Stretch  the  muslin  well  upon 
tha  frame.  Soak  over  night  one-half  pound  of  the  best  white 
glue  in  4  gallons  water  ;  in  the  morning  turn  it  off  and  boil 
the  glue.  It  must  be  very  thin.  Add  a  small  piece  of  castile 
soap  scraped  fine.  To  have  it  more  transparent  add  2  oz. 
powdered  alum.  It  must  be  put  on  quick,  while  warm. 
Gamboge  for  painting  shades  must  be  dissolved  in  alcohol; 
carmine  in  spirits  of  hartshorn. 

Size  for  Improving  Poor  Drawing  Paper.  — -Take  1  oz.  of 
white  glue,  1  oz.  of  white  soap,  and'j  oz.  of  alum.  Soak  the 
glue  and  the  soap  in  Avater  until  they  appear  like  jelly  ;  then 
simmer  in  1  quart  of  water  until  the  Avhole  is  melted.  Add 
the  alum,  simmer  again  and  filter.  To  be  applied  hot. 

Gold  Size. — This  is  an  entirely  different  article,  and  is  in 
reality  a  very  strong  drying  oil  colored  to  resemble  gold,  and 
used  for  cementing  gold  leaf  to  articles  that  are  to  be 


128  THE  "VOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

To  prepare  it,  drying  or  boiled  oil  is  thickened  with  yellow 
ochre  or  calcined  red  ochre,  and  carefully  reduced  to  the 
utmost  smoothness  by  grinding.  It  is  thinned  with  oil  of 
turpentine.  It  improves  by  age. 

Skins— Tanning  and  Curing. 

Curing  Fur  Skins. — The  following  are  the  directions  given 
in  the  "  Trapper's  Guide,"  by  Newhouse,  an  experienced  trap- 
per and  hunter.  1.  As  soon  as  possible  after  the  animal  is 
dead,  attend  to  the  skinning  and  curing.  The  slightest  taint 
of  putrefaction  loosens  the  fur  and  destroys  the  value  of  the 
skin.  2.  Scrape  off  all  superfluous  flesh  and  fat,  but  be 
careful  not  to  go  so  deep  as  to  cut  the  fibre  of  the  skin. 
3.  Never  dry  a  skin  by  the  fire  or  in  the  sun,  but  in  a  cool, 
shady  place,  sheltered  from  rain.  If  you  use  a  barn  door  for 
a  stretcher,  nail  the  skin  on  the  inside  of  the  door.  4.  Never 
use  "preparations"  of  any  kind  in  curing  skins,  nor  even 
wash  them  in  water,  but  simply  stretch  and  dry  them  as  they 
are  taken  from  the  animal.  In  drying  skins  it  is  important 
that  they  should  be  stretched  tight  like  a  drum-head. 

To  prepare  Sheep  Skins  for  Mats. — 1.  Make  a  strong  soap 
lather  with  hot  water  and  let  it  stand  till  cold  ;  wash  the 
fresh  skin  in  it,  carefully  squeezing  out  all  the  dirt  from  the 
wool ;  wash  it  in  cold  water  till  all  the  soap  is  taken  out. 
Dissolve  a  pound  each  of  salt  and  alum  in  2  gallons  of  hot 
water,  and  put  the  skin  into  a  tub  sufficient  to  cover  it ;  let 
it  soak  for  12  hours  and  hang  it  over  a  pole  to  drain.  When 
well  drained,  stretch  it  carefully  on  a  board  to  dry,  and 
stretch  several  times  while  drying.  Before  it  is  quite  dry 
sprinkle  on  the  flesh  side  1  oz.  each  of  finely  pulverized  alum 
and  saltpetre,  rubbing  them  in  well.  Try  if  the  wool  be  firm 
on  the  skin  ;  if  not,  let  it  remain  a  day  or  two,  then  rub  again 
with  alum  ;  fold  the  flesh  sides  together  and  hang  in  the 
shade  for  two  or  three  days,  turning  them  over  each  day  till 
quite  dry.  Scrape  the  flesh  side  with  a  blunt  J  .nife  and  rub  it 
with  pumice  or  rotten  stone.  Very  beautiful  mittens  can  be 
made  of  lambs'  skins  prepared  in  this  way. 

2.  The  following  process  has  been  found  to  succeed  very 
well  with  sheep  skins,  dog  skins  and  similar  hides  :  Tack 
the  skin  upon  a  board  with  the  flesh  side  out,  and  then  scrape 
with  a  blunt  knife  ;  next  rub  it  over  hard  with  pulverized 
chalk,  until  it  will  absorb  no  inore,  Then  tak§  the  s]un.  Q# 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  129 

from  the  board  and  cover  it  with  pulverized  alum ;  double 
half-way  over,  with  the  flesh  side  in  contact ;  then  roll  tight 
together  and  keep  dry  for  three  days,  after  which  unfold  and 
stretch  it  again  on  a  board  or  floor,  and  dry  in  the  air,  and  it 
will  be  ready  for  use. 

Skins  of  Rabbits,  Cats  and  small  Animals. — Lay  the  skin 
on  a  smooth  board,  the  fur  side  undermost,  and  fasten  it 
down  with  tinned  tacks.  Wash  it  over  first  with  a  solution 
of  salt ;  then  dissolve  2£  oz.  of  alum  in  1  pint  of  warm  water, 
and  Avith  a  sponge  dipped  in  this  solution,  moisten  the  sur- 
face all  over  ;  repeat  this  every  now  and  then  for  three  days. 
When  the  skin  is  quite  dry  take  out  the  tacks,  and  rolling 
it  loosely  the  long  way,  the  hair  side  in,  draw  it  quickly 
backwards  and  forwards  through  a  large  smooth  ring  until 
it  is  quite  soft,  and  then  roll  it  in  the  contrary  way  of  the 
skin  and  repeat  the  operation.  Skins  prepared  in  this  way 
are  useful  in  many  experiments,  and  they  make  good  gloves 
and  chest  protectors. 

Stains. 

Stains  of  different  kinds  are  removed  either  by  dissolving 
the  offensive  matter  out  of  the  material  which  it  has  soiled 
or  by  destroying  it.  Ordinary  washing  is  a  good  example  of 
the  first  method  ;  the  removal  of  fruit  stains  by  means  of 
chloride  of  lime  illustrates  the  second.  Sometimes  it  is 
necessary  to  combine  both  methods.  In  practice  it  is  of 
course  necessary  to  avoid  the  use  of  any  solvent  or  bleaching 
agent  that  can  injure  the  material  from  which  the  stain  is  to 
be  removed.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  stains  which  most 
frequently  occur,  and  also  of  the  best  methods  of  removing 
them  : 

Acids. — Most  acids  produce  red  stains  in  all  black  or  blue 
colors  of  vegetable  origin.  Where  the  acid  has  not  been  so 
strong  as  to  injure  the  texture  of  the  fabric,  such  stains  may 
be  easily  removed  by  the  use  of  a  little  potash,  soda  or  am- 
monia. Nitric  acid,  however,  not  only  turns  red,  but  bleaches 
the  goods,  and  it  is  very  difficult  to  remove  stains  caused  by 
this  acid.  It  is  said  that  the  yellow  stains  formed  on  brown 
or  black  woolen  goods  by  nitric  acid  can  be  removed,  when 
freshly  formed,  by  moistening  them  repeatedly  with  a  con- 
centrated solution  of  permanganate  of  potash,  and  then 
rinsing  with  water.  Yellow  stains  on  the  hands  may  be 


130  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION, 

treated  in  tlie  same  way,  and  the  dark  brown  coloration  pro- 
duced may  then  be  removed  by  treating  with  aqueous  solution 
of  sulphurous  acid. 

Aniline  Dyes. — A  solution  of  common  sodium  sulphite  will 
rapidly  remove  the  stains  of  raost  of  the  aniline  dyes  from 
the  hands. 

Fruit  Stains. — Most  fruits  yield  juices  which,  owing  to  the 
acid  they  contain,  permanently  injure  the  tone  of  the  dye  ; 
but  the  greater  part  may  be  removed  without  leaving  a  stain, 
if  the  spot  be  rinsed  in  cold  water  in  which  a  few  drops  of 
aqua  animonise  have  been  placed,  before  the  spot  has  dried. 
Wine  stains  on  white  materials  may  be  removed  by  rinsing 
with  cold  water,  applying  locally  a  weak  solution  of  chloride 
of  lime,  and  again  rinsing  in  an  abundance  of  water.  Some 
fruit  stains  yield  only  to  soaping  with  the  hand,  followed 
by  fumigation  with  sulphurous  acid  ;  but  the  latter  process 
is  inadmissible  with  certain  colored  stuffs.  If  delicate  colors 
are  injured  by  soapy  or  alkaline  matters,  the  stains  must  be 
treated  with  colorless  vinegar  of  moderate  strength." 

Grease. — 1.  Where  the  fabric  will  bear  it,  the  best  method 
of  removing  grease  spots  is  simple  washing  with  soap  and 
water.  No  ordinary  grease  spot  will  resist  this. 

2.  Chalk,  fuller's-earth,  steatite  or  "French  chalk."    These 
should  be  merely  diffused  through  a  little  water  to  form  a 
thin  paste,  which  is  spread  upon  the  spot,  allowed  to  dry, 
and  then  brushed  out. 

3.  Ox-gall  and  yolk  of  t-gg,  which  have  the  property  of 
dissolving   fatty   bodies    without   affecting   prrceptibly   the 
texture  or  colors  of  cloth.     The  oxgall  should  be  purified,  to 
prevent  its  greenish  tint  from  degrading   the   brilliancy  of 
dyed  stuffs,  or  the  purity  of  whites.     Thus  prepared  it  is  the 
most  effective  of  all  substances  known  for  removing  this  kind 
of  stains,  especially  for  \voolen  cloths.     It  is  to  be  diffused 
through  its  own  bulk  of  water,  applied  to  the  spots,  rubbed 
well  into  them  with  the  hands  till  they  disappear,  after  which 
the  stuff  is  to  be  washed  with  soft  water. 

4.  The  volatile  oil  of  turpentine.      This  will  take  out  only 
recent  stains  ;  for  which  purpose  it  ought  to  be  previously 
purified  by  distillation  over  quicklime. 

5.  Benzine  or  essence  of  petroleum  is  commoniy  used  for 
removing  grease  spots  ;  but  these  liquids  present  the  incon- 
venience of  leaving,  in  most  cases,  a  brownish  aureola.     To 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  131 

avoid  this,  it  is  necessary,  whilst  the  fabric  is  still  saturated, 
and  immediately  the  stain  has  disappeared,  to  sprinkle  gyp- 
Bum  or  lycopodinm  over  the  whole  of  the  moistened  surface. 
When  dry,  the  powder  is  brushed  away. 

5.  Balls  for  removing  grease  spots  are  made  as  follows  : 
Take  fuller's-earth,  free  from  all  gritty  matter  ;  mix  with  half 
a  pound  of  the  earth,  so  prepared,  half  a  pound  of  soda,  as 
much  soap,  and  eight  yolks  of  eggs  well  beaten  up  with  half 
a  pound  of  purified  ox-gall.  The  whole  must  be  triturated 
upon  a  porphyry  slab  ;  the  soda  with  the  soap  in  the  same 
manner  as  colors  are  ground,  mixing  in  gradually  the  eggs 
and  the  ox-gall  previously  beaten  together.  Incorporate  next 
the  soft  earth  by  slow  degrees,  till  a  uniform  thick  paste  be 
formed,  which  should  be  made  into  balls  or  cakes  of  a  con- 
venient size,  and  laid  out  to  dry.  A  little  of  this  detergent 
being  scraped  off  with  a  knife,  made  into  a  paste  with  water, 
and  applied  to  the  stain,  will  remove  it. 

Ink  and  Iron  Mould. — Fresh  ink  and  the  soluble  salts  of 
iron  produce  stains  which,  if  allowed  to  dry,  and  especially 
if  afterwards  the  material  has  been  washed,  are  difficult  to 
extract  without  injury  to  the  ground.  When  fresh,  such 
stains  yield  rapidly  to  a  treatment  with  moistened  cream  of 
tartar,  .aided  by  a  little  friction,  if  the  material  or  color  is 
delicate.  If  the  ground  be  white,  oxalic  acid,  employed  in 
the  form  of  a  concentrated  aqueous  solution,  will  effectually 
remove  fresh  iron  stains. 

A  concentrated  solution  of  pyrophosphate  of  soda  removes 
many  kinds  of  ink  from  delicate  fabrics  without  altering  the 
coloring  matters  printed  upon  the  tissues,  or  in  any  way 
injuring  them. 

Mildew. — Make  a  very  weak  solution  of  chloride  of  lime  in 
water  (about  a  heaped-up  teaspoonful  to  a  quart  of  water) ; 
strain  it  carefully,  and  dip  the  spot  on  the  garment  into  it ; 
and  if  the  mildew  does  not  disappear  immediately,  lay  it  in 
the  sun  for  a  few  minutes,  or  dip  it  again  into  the  solution. 
The  work  is  effectually  and  speedily  done,  and  the  chloride 
of  lime  neither  rots  the  cloth  nor  removes  delicate  colors, 
when  sufficiently  diluted,  and  the  articles  well  rinsed  after- 
ward in  clear  water. 

Another  method  is  to  wet  the  spot  in  lemon  juice,  then 
spread  over  it  soft  soap  and  chalk  mixed  together,  and  spread 
where  the  hottest  rays  of  the  sun  will  beat  upon  it  for  half 


132  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION, 

e 

an  hour ;  if  not  entire!/  removed  repeat  the  same.  Or  wet 
in  clear  lemon  juice  and  lay  in  the  sun ;  or  soak  for  an 
hour  or  two,  and  then  spread  in  the  sun. 

Nitrate  of  Silver. — Nitrate  of  silver,  it  will  be  remembered, 
is  the  base  of  most  of  the  so-called  indelible  inks  used  for 
marking  linen  in  almost  every  household.  Stains  or  marks 
of  any  kind  made  with  silver  solution  or  the  bath  solution  of 
photographers  may  be  promptly  removed  from  clothing  bv 
simply  wetting  the  stain  or  mark  Avith  a  solution  of  bi- 
chloride of  mercury.  The  chemical  result  is  the  change  of 
the  black-looking  nitrate  of  silver  into  chloride  of  silver,, 
which  is  white  or  invisible  on  the  cloth.  Bichloride  of  mer- 
cury can  be  had  at  the  drug  stores.  It  is  slightly  soluble  in 
water,  is  a  rank  poison,  and  we  would  not  advise  anybody  to 
keep  it  about  one's  house. 

The  immediate  and  repeated  application  of  a  very  weak 
solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium  (accompanied  by  thorough 
rinsings  in  clean  water),  will  generally  remove  these  stains 
without  injury  to  the  colors. 

Paint. — Stains  of  oil-paint  may  t»e  removed  TV .ith  bisulphide 
of  carbon  ;  many  by  means  of  spirits  of  turpentine  ;  if  dry 
and  old,  with  chloroform.  For  these  last,  as  well  as  for  tar- 
spots,  the  best  way  is  to  cover  them  with  olive  oil  or  butter. 
When  the  paint  is  softened,  the  whole  may  be  removed  by 
treatment,  first,  with  spirits  of  turpentine,  then  with  benzine. 

Tar. — Tar  and  pitch  produce  stains  easily  removed  by  suc- 
cessive applications  of  spirits  of  turpentine,  coal-tar  naphtha, 
and  benzine.  If  they  are  very  old  and  hard,  it  is  well  to 
soften  them  by  lightly  rubbing  with  a  pledget  of  wool 
dipped  in  good  olive  oil.  The  softened  mass  will  then  easily 
yield  to  the  action  of  the  other  solvents.  Eesins,  varnishes 
and  sealing  wax  may  be  removed  by  warming  and  applying 
strong  alcohol.  Care  must  always  be  taken  that,  in  rubbing 
the  material  to  remove  the  stains,  the  friction  shall  be  ap- 
plied the  way  of  the  stuff,  and  not  indifferently  backwards  and 
forwards. 

Steel— Working  and  Tempering. 

Most  workmen  find  themselves,  at  times,  compelled  to 
forge  and  temper  their  own  tools,  such  as  drills,  cold  chisels, 
etc.  The  following  hints  will  be  of  service  : 

Forging  Steel. — Beware  of  over-heating  the  piece  to  be 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  133 

forged,  and  also  be  careful  that  the  fire  is  free  from  sulphur. 
Small  drills  are  easily  heated  in  the  flame  of  a  lamp  or 
candle  ;  a  Bnnsen  burner  will  heat  sufficiently  quite  a  good 
sized  tool.  Charcoal  makes  the  best  fire  for  all  kinds  of  tools. 
If  you  are  compelled  to  use  common  bituminous  coal  let  the 
fire  burn  until  most  of  the  sulphur  has  been  driven  off.  Do 
not  hammer  with  heavy  blows  after  the  steel  has  cooled.  By 
tapping  it  lightly,  however,  until  it  becomes  black,  the  close- 
ness of  the  grain  is  increased. 

To  Restore  burnt  Cast  Steel — Heat  it  to  a  bright  cherry  red 
and  quench  it  in  water.  Do  this  a  few  times  and  then  forge 
it  carefully,  and  it  will  be  nearly  as  good  as  before.  The 
various  recipes  for  mixtures  for  restoring  burnt  steel  are 
worthless. 

Hardening  and  Tempering  Steel. — Heat  the  steel  to  a  bright 
cherry  red  and  plunge  it  in  water  that  has  been  thoroughly 
boiled  and  then  allowed  to  cool.  It  will  then  be  "as  hard  as 
fire  and  water  will  make  it,"  and  too  hard  for  anything 
except  hardened  bearings,  or  tools  for  cutting  and  drilling 
glass  and  very  hard  metals. 

Where  very  hard  tools  are  required,  as,  for  example,  for 
cutting_steel  or  glass,  mercury  is  the  best  liquid  for  harden- 
ing ste*el  tools.  The  best  steel,  when  forged  into  shape  and 
hardened  in  mercury,  will  cut  almost  anything.  We  have 
seen  articles  made  from  ordinary  steel,  which  have  been 
hardened  and  tempered  to  a  deep  straw  color,  turned  with 
comparative  ease  with  cutting  tools,  from  good  tool  steel 
hardened  in  mercury. 

To  make  it  stand  work  without  breaking,  it  must  be 
tempered.  To  do  this,  polish  the  surface  on  a  grindstone  or 
with  emery  paper,  so  that  any  change  in  the  color  of  the 
metal  may  be  easily  seen.  Then  heat  the  tool  until  the  cut- 
ting edge  shows  the  proper  color,  as  given  below.  Large 
drills  and  cold  chisels  are  hardened  and  tempered  at  one  opera- 
tion, the  cutting  edge  being  cooled  and  hardened  while  the 
upper  part  is  left  hot.  When  taken  from  the  water  the  heat 
from  the  shank  passes  towards  the  cutting  edge  and  brings 
it  to  the  right  degree  of  softness.  Small  drills  may  be  best 
tempered  in  the  flame  of  a  lamp.  A  spirit  lamp  is  best, 
and  the  neatest  plan  is  to  heat  the  drill  a  short  distance 
from  the  point  and  allow  the  heat  to  flow  towards  the  cutting 
edge.  As  soon  as  the  right  color  is  seen  on  the  edge,  the 


134  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

entire  tool  is  plunged  in  water  and  cooled.     In  this  way  the 
shank  is  kept  soft  and  the  tool  is  not  so  apt  to  snap  off.  " 

The  following  are  the  degrees  of  heat  (Fahrenheit)  and 
corresponding  colors  to  which  tools  for  different  purposes 
should  be  brought  : 

Temperature.     Color.  Temper. 

430°      Very  faint  yellow.  )  Very  hard  ;  suitable  for  hammer 

450°      Pale  straw  color,      f  faces,  drills  for  stone,  etc. 

470°      F  11     *11  )  -^-ar(l  and  inelastic  ;  suitable  for 

-o,  rt  xl          '  >•  shears,  scissors,  turning  tools  for 

j  hard  metal,  etc. 

510°      Brown  with  purple  )  Suitable  for    tools    for    cutting 
spots.  vwood   and  soft  metals,  such  as 

538°      Purple.  )  plane  irons,  knives,  etc. 

1  For  tools  requiring  strong  cut- 

550°       Dark  blue.  I  ting  edges  without  extreme  luud- 

560°      Full  blue.  j  ness;  as  cold  chisels,  axes,  cutlery, 

etc. 


To  Temper  Steel  on  one  Edge.  —  Red  hot  lead  is  an  excellent 
thing  in  which  to  heat  a  long  plate  of  steel  that  requires 
softening  or  tempering  on  one  edge.  The  steel  need  only  to 
be  heated  at  the  part  required,  and  there  is  little  dange'r  of 
the  metal  warping  or  springing.  By  giving  sufficient  time, 
thick  portions  may  be  heated  equally  with  thin  parts.  The 
ends  of  wire  springs  that  are  to  be  bent  or  riveted  may  be 
softened  for  that  purpose  by  this  process,  after  the  springs 
have  been  hardened  or  tempered. 

Blazing  Off.  —  Saws  and  springs  are  generally  hardened  in 
various  compositions  of  oil,  suet,  wax  and  other  ingredients, 
which,  however,  lose  their  hardening  property  after  a  fcv, 
weeks  constant  use  ;  the  saws  are  heated  in  long  furnaces, 
and  then  immersed  horizontally  and  edgewise  in  a  long  trough 
containing  the  composition  :  two  troughs  are  commonly  used, 
the  one  until  it  gets  too  warm,  then  the  other  for  a  period, 
and  so  on  alternately.  Part  of  the  composition  is  wiped  oil 
the  saws  with  a  piece  of  leather,  when  they  are  removed 
from  the  trough,  and  they  are  heated,  one  by  one,  over  a 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  135 

clea1'  coke  fire,  until  the  grease  inflames  ;  this  L,  called 
"bL,zingoff." 

The  composition  used  by  an  experienced  saw  maker  is  two 
pounds  of  suet  and  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  beeswax  to  every 
gallon  of  whale  oil ;  these  are  boiled  together,  and  will  serve 
for  thin  works  and  most  kinds  of  steel.  The  addition  of 
black  resin,  to  the  extent  of  about  one  pound  to  the  gallon, 
makes  it  serve  for  thicker  pieces,  and  for  those  it  refused  to 
harden  before  ;  but  the  resin  should  be  added  with  judgment, 
or  the  works  will  become  too  hard  and  brittle.  The  compo- 
sition is  useless  when  it  has  been  constantly  employed  for 
about  a  month  ;  the  period  depends,  however,  on  the  extent 
to  which  it  is  used,  and  the  trough  should  be  thoroughly 
cleansed  out  before  new  mixture  is  placed  in  it. 

The  following  recipe  is  recommended  :  Twenty  gallons  of 
spermaceti  oil  ;  twenty  pounds  of  beef  suet,  rendered  ;  one 
gallon  of  neatsfoot  oil ;  one  pound  of  pitch  ;  three  pounds 
of  black  resin. 

These  last  two  articles  must  be  previously  melted  together, 
and  then  added  to  the  other  ingredients  ;  when  the  whole 
must  be  heated  in  a  proper  iron  vessel,  with  a  close  cover 
fitted  to  it,  until  the  moisture  is  entirely  evaporated,  and  the 
composition  will  take  fire  on  a  flaming  body  being  presented 
to  its  surface,  but  which  must  be  instantly  extinguished 
again,  by  putting  on  the  cover  of  the  vessel. 

Whexx  i/ne  saws  are  wanted  to  be  rather  hard,  but  little  of 
the  grease  is  burned  off;  Avhen  milder,  a  larger  portion  ; 
and  for  a  spring  temper,  the  whole  is  allowed  to  burn  away. 

When  the  work  is  thick,  or  irregularly  thick  and  thin,  as 
in  some  springs,  a  second  and  third  dose  is  burned  off,  to 
insure  equality  of  temper  at  all  parts  alike. 

Gun-lock  springs  are  sometimes  literally  fried  in  oil  for 
a  considerable  time  over  a  fire  in  an  iron  tray  ;  the  thick 
parts  are  then  sure  to  be  sufficiently  reduced,  and  the  thin 
parts  do  not  become  the  more  softened  from  the  continuance 
of  the  blazing  heat.  But  for  ordinary  steel  articles  which 
aro  required  to  be  soft,  tough  and  springy,  the  usual  plan  is 
to  harden  and  then  dip  them  in  any  coarse  oil,  and  heat 
thorn  over  the  fire  until  the  oil  blazes. 

Springs  and  saws  appear  to  lose  their  elasticity,  after 
hardening  and  tempering,  from  the  reduction  and  friction 
they  undergo  in  grinding  and  polishing.  Toward  the  conclu- 


136  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

sion  of  the  manufacture,  the  elasticity  of  the  saw  is  restored, 
principally  by  hammering,  and  partly  by  heating  it  over  a 
clear  coke  fire  to  a  straw  color  ;  the  tint  is  removed  by  very 
diluted  muriatic  acid,  after  which  the  saws  are  well  washect 
in  plain  water  and  dried. 

Welding  Steel. — As  we  have  already  stated  in  the  article  on 
Iron,  welding  is  in  reality  a  species  of  autogenous  soldering. 
And,  as  in  soldering  or  brazing,  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the 
surfaces  that  are  to  be  united,  free  from  dirt  and  oxide,  so  in 
welding,  the  surfaces  must  be  perfectly  clean  or  the  joint  will 
be  imperfect.  In  welding  common  iron,  sand  is  the  flux 
generally  used.  When  it  is  required  to  weld  steel  to  iron, 
the  steel  must  be  heated  to  a  less  degree  than  the  iron,  as  it 
is  the  most  fusible.  The  surfaces  should  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  before  they  are  brought  together.  Sal  ammoniac 
cleans  the  dirt  from  the  steel,  and  borax  causes  the  oxide  to 
fuse  before  it  attains  that  heat  which  will  burn  the  steel ; 
consequently,  a  mixture  of  these  two  substances  forms  one  of 
the  best  materials  for  welding. 

The  best  mode  of  preparing  this  mixture  is  as  follows  : 
Take  ten  parts  of  borax  and  one  part  of  sal  ammoniac  and 
grind  them  together.  Then  melt  them  together,  and  when 
cold  reduce  the  mixture  to  fine  powder,  and  preserve  in  a 
well-stopped  jar  or  bottle. 

To  Blue  Steel — The  mode  employed  in  bluing  steel  is 
merely  to  subject  it  to  heat.  The  dark  blue  is  produced  at  a 
temperature  of  600°,  the  full  blue  at  500°,  and  the  blue  at 
550°.  The  steel  must  be  finely  polished  on  its  surface,  and 
then  exposed  to  a  uniform  degree  of  heat.  Accordingly, 
there  are  three  ways  of  coloring  ;  first,  by  a  flame  producing 
no  soot,  as  spirits  of  wine  ;  secondly,  by  a  hot  plate  of  iron  ; 
and  thirdly,  by  wood  ashes.  As  a  very  regular  degree  of  heat 
is  necessary,  wood  ashes  for  fine  work  are  to  be  preferred. 
The  work  must  be  covered  over  with  them,  and  carefully 
watched  ;  when  the  color  is  sufficiently  heightened,  the  \7ork 
is  perfect. 

To  Blue  Small  Steel  Articles. — Make  a  box  of  sheet  iron  ; 
fill  it  with  sand  and  subject  it  to  a  steady  heat.  The  articles 
to  be  blued  must  be  finished  and  well  polished.  Immerse 
the  articles  in  the  sand,  keeping  watch  of  them  until  they 
are  of  the  right  color,  when  they  should  be  taken  out  and 
immersed  in  oil. 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  137 

Sulphur. 

Sulphur  or  brimstone  is  a  well-known  yellow  substance 
largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  matches,  gunpowder  and 
sulphuric  acid.  Aside  from  these  uses,  which  are  of  interest 
only  to  large  manufacturers,  sulphur  is  employed  for  bleach- 
ing, disinfecting,  making  moulds  for  plaster  casts,  and  as  a 
cement  for  fastening  iron  bars  in  stone  sockets. 

Sulphur,  when  burned,  produces  sulphurous  acid,  a  gas 
which  destroys  most  vegetable  colors  and  the  germs  of  most 
diseases.  As  a  bleaching  agent  it  is  sometimes  to  be  preferred 
to  chlorine,  as  it  does  not  injure  the  fabrics  so  much.  The 
method  of  using  it  is  to  hang  the  articles  to  be  bleached  in 
a  large  box  or  closet  in  which  the  sulphur  is  afterwards 
burned.  The  easiest  way  to  burn  the  sulphur  is  to  dip 
heavy  brown  paper  in  melted  sulphur,  and  burn  the  matches 
thus  produced.  In  this  way  the  sulphur  is  exposed  to  the 
air  sufficiently  to  cause  it  to  continue  to  burn  when  once 
ignited.  Another  very  good  plan  is  to  place  the  sulphur  on 
a  block  of  iron  or  brick  which  has  been  previously  heated  to 
above  the  melting  point  of  sulphur.  The  sulphur,  if  then 
ignited,  will  continue  to  burn  freely,  but  it  is  almost  im- 
possible to  get  a  cold  mass  of  sulphur  to  burn  freely. 

The"  same  method  answers  for  disinfecting  rooms,  and 
sulphurous  acid  vapors  are  the  least  injurious  and  most  easily 
procured  of  all  our  disinfectants.  The  National  Board  of 
Health,  in  their  recent  "Instructions  for  Disinfection,"  say 
that  "  fumigation  with  sulphur  is  the  only  practicable  method 
for  disinfecting  the  house.  For  this  purpose  the  rooms  to 
be  disinfected  must  be  vacated.  Heavy  clothing,  blankets, 
bedding,  etc.,  should  be  opened  and  exposed  during  the 
fumigation.  Close  the  rooms  as  tightly  as  possible,  ignite  the 
sulphur,  and  allow  the  room  to  remain  closed  for  twenty-four 
hours.  For  a  room  about  ten  feet  square  at  least  two  pounds  of 
sulphur  should  be  used  ;  for  larger  rooms,  proportionally  in- 
creased quantities."  Of  course  in  making  arrangements  for 
burning  the  sulphur  great  care  must  be  exercised  so  as  not  to 
set  the  floor  on  fire.  Safety  is  best  secured  by  placing  the 
burning  sulphur  over  a  tub  of  water  or  a  considerable  heap 
of  sand  or  soil. 

In  making  moulds  for  taking  plaster  casts,  the  sulphur 
must  be  rendered  plastic.  This  is  an  extraordinary  property 
possessed  by  this  material,  and  one  known  only  to  chemists 


133  THE  WOBKSHOP  COMPANION. 

and  experts.  When  sulphur  is  melted  and  poured  into  water, 
instead  of  becoming  hard  it  remains  quite  soft  like  dough, 
and  in  this  state  it  may  be  pressed  into  the  most  minute 
crevices  of  a  medal  or  other  object,  so  as  to  take  a  perfect 
mould  of  it.  From  this  mould  plaster  casts  or  electrotypes 
may  be  taken.  After  a  short  time  the  sulphur  returns  to  its 
original  hard,  yellow,  brittle  condition. 

As  a  cement  for  fastening  iron  rods  in  the  holes  sunk  in 
stones,  as  in  the  gratings  of  windows  and  the  iron  work  of 
fences,  sulphur  is  now  extensively  used  instead  of  lead.  To 
pure  sulphur,  however,  there  is  this  very  strong  objection  that 
it  is  exceedingly  brittle  and  is  readily  fractured,  and  even 
reduced  to  coarse  powder  by  sudden  changes  of  temperature. 
We  have  seen  a  huge  roll  of  sulphur  broken  simply  by  the 
heat  of  the  hand.  This  may  be  avoided,  in  a  measure,  by 
mixing  the  melted  sulphur  with  some  inert  powder  like  sand. 
Iron  filings  have  also  been  mixed  with  it  for  the  purpose. 

Tin. 

Tin  is  a  brilliant,  silvery -white  metal.  It  is  very  malleable, 
but  its  power  to  resist  tensile  strains  is  so  small  that  it  is  not 
very  ductile.  When  bent  it  emits  a  peculiar  crackling  sound, 
arising  from  the  destruction  of  cohesion  amongst  its  particles. 
When  a  bar  of  tin  is  rapidly  bent  backwards  and  forwards 
several  times  successively,  it  becomes  so  hot  that  it  cannot 
be  held  in  the  hand. 

Tin  is  acted  upon  by  caustic  alkalies  (potash  and  soda), 
but  resists  the  acids  of  fruit,  etc. ;  hence  its  use  for  coating 
iron  so  as  to  prevent  corrosion  and  rust.  Tin  plate  is  sheet 
iron  which  has  been  coated  with  tin.  To  apply  the  tin  the 
iron  must  be  heated,  and  this  is  apt,  in  some  cases,  to  injure 
the  articles  to  be  tinned,  as  it  softens  the  iron,  or  in  other 
words  draws  its  temper.  The  process  described  under  the 
head  "Iron,"  page  70,  enables  us  to  avoid  this  difficulty. 

Tin  forms  alloys  with  various  metals,  those  of  lead  and 
copper  being  best  known.  That  with  lead  is  known  as  solder 
and  pewter  (see  under  these  heads);  that  with  copper  is 
bronze,  gun  metal  or  "composition." 

Tin  and  iron  may  be  fused  together  in  all  proportions, 
forming  apparently  homogeneous  alloys.  Berthier  describes 
one  containing  35 -1  per  cent,  of  tin,  and  another  containing 
50  per  cent,  of  tin,  both  being  very  brittle  and  capable  of 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  139 

being  reduced  to  an  impalpable  powder.  The  affinity  of  iron 
for  tin  is  also  well  illustrated  in  common  tin  plate,  which  is 
nothing  more  than  sheet  iron  superficially  combined  with 
tin,  to  which  a  further  quantity  adheres  Avithout  being  in 
combination.  The  alloy  of  tin  and  iron  upon  the  plate,  how- 
ever, is  so  thin  that  it  can  easily  be  removed  by  mechanical 
friction,  and  the  amount  of  tin  thus  alloyed  is  probably  not 
much  larger  than  one-half  of  one  per  cent.  Tin,  when  added 
to  pig  iron,  imparts  to  it  a  steel-like  texture  of  fine  grain  and 
great  hardness  without  very  great  brittleness.  Such  iron  is 
easily  fused,  and  gives  a  sound  like  a  bell.  Indeed,  in  the 
Great  International  Exhibition  of  1851,  there  was  a  large 
bell  of  cast  iron  stated  to  be  alloyed  with  a  small  proportion 
of  tin.  According  to  Karsten.  pig  iron  with  one  per  cent,  of 
tin  yields  a  somewhat  cold-short  wrought  iron  with  about 
0'19  per  cent,  of  tin.  Such  iron,  it  is  stated,  works  well 
under  the  hammer,  but  at  a  white  heat  white  vapors  escape. 
With  more  tin,  tho  iron  in  welding  gave  much  waste  and 
produced  cold-short  iron,  with  a  fine,  white  and  dull  grain. 
Eor  specific  purposes,  however,  especially  where  great  hard- 
ness is  required,  iron  with  a  small  amount  of  tin,  not  exceed- 
ing 0'^.  per  cent,  seems  to  be  well  adapted.  Sterling,  in 
England,  hardens  the  tops  of  rails  with  tin,  and  according  to 
a  report  of  the  English  Commission  for  testing  iron  in  regard 
to  its  adaptability  for  railroad  purposes,  the  best  Dundyvan 
bar  iron,  if  alloyed  with  0*22  per  cent,  of  tin,  supported, 
without  breaking,  a  weight  of  23  "39  tons  to  the  square  inch. 
Ott  fused  wrought  iron  with  0*5  per  cent,  of  tin,  and  arrived 
at  results  similar  to  those  of  Karsten.  Whilst  at  a  welding 
heat  it  worked  very  well,  the  smith  stating  that  it  was  some 
of  the  toughest  iron  he  had  ever  worked.  The  grain  was 
found  to  be  fine  and  steel-like,  with  strong  lustre  and  bright 
color. 

Varnish. 

It  is  in  general  more  economical  to  buy  varnishes  than  to 
make  them  on  tha  small  scale.  Occasionally,  however,  our 
readers  may  find  themselves  in  a  situation  where  a  simple 
recipe  for  a  good  varnish  will  prove  valuable.  We  give  a  few 
recipes  which  are  easily  followed,  and  which  will  undoubtedly 
prove  useful  in  special  cases. 

Basket   Ware,    Varnish  for,—  The    following    vanush  for 


140  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

basket  \7ork  is  said  to  dry  rabidly,  to  possess  sufficient 
elasticity,  and  to  be  applicable  with  or  without  admixture  of 
color  :  Heat  375  grains  of  good  linseed  oil  on  a  sand  bath 
until  it  becomes  stringy,  and  a  drop  placed  on  a  cold, 
inclined  surface  does  not  run  ;  then  add  gradually  7,500 
grains  of  copal  oil  varnish,  or  any  other  copal  varnish.  As 
considerable  effervescence  takes  place,  a  large  vessel  is  neces- 
sary. The  desired  consistency  is  given  to  it,  when  cold,  by 
addition  of  oil  of  turpentine. 

Black  Varnish  for  Optical  Work. — The  external  surfaces 
of  brass  and  iron  are  generally  blacked  or  bronzed  with 
compositions  given  under  the  head  of  lacquers.  The  insides 
of  the  tubes  of  telescopes  and  microscopes  should  be  coated 
with  a  dead  black  varnish  so  as  to  absorb  the  light  and  pre- 
vent any  glare.  The  varnish  that  is  generally  used  for  this 
purpose  consists  of  lampblack,  made  liquid  by  means  of  a 
very  thin  solution  of  shellac  in  alcohol,  -but  such  varnish,  even 
when  laid  on  warm  metal,  is  very  apt  to  scale  off  and  thus 
produce  two  serious  evils — the  exposure  of  the  bright  metal- 
lic surface  and  the  deposit  of  specks  on  the  lenses.  It  will 
therefore  be  found  that  lampblack,  carefully  ground  in  tur- 
pentine, to  which  about  a  fifth  of  its  volume  of  gold  size  or 
boiled  linseed  oil  has  been  added,  will  adhere  much  more 
firmly.  The  metal  should  be  warm  when  the  varnish  is  ap- 
plied. Care  must  be  taken  not  to  use  too  much  gold  size, 
otherwise  the  effect  will  be  a  bright  black  instead  of  a  dead 
black. 

Blade  Varnish  for  Cast  Iron. — 1.  For  those  objects  to 
which  it  is  applicable  one  of  the  best  black  varnishes  is  ob- 
tained by  applying  boiled  linseed  oil  to  the  iron,  the  latter 
being  heated  to  a  temperature  that  will  just  char  or  blacken 
the  oil.  The  oil  seems  to  enter  into  the  pores  of  the  iron, 
and  after  such  an  application  the  metal  resists  rust  and  cor- 
rosive agents  very  perfectly. 

2.  Fuse  40  oz.  of  asphaltum  and  add  %  a  gallon  of  boiled 
linseed  oil,  6  oz.  red  lead,  6  oz.  litharge,  and  4  oz.  sulphate 
of  zinc,  dried  and  powdered.  Boil  for  two  hours  and  mix  in 
8  oz.  fused  dark  amber  gum  and  a  pint  of  hot  linseed  oil, 
and  boil  again  for  two  hours  more.  When  the  mass  has 
thickened  withdraw  the  heat  and  thin  down  with  a  gallon  of 
turpentine. 

Green  Varnish. — There  is  a  most   beautiful  transparent 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  141 

/ 

green  varnish  employed  to  give  a  fine  glittering  color  to  gilt 
or  other  decorated  works.  As  the  preparation  of  this  varnish 
is  very  little  known,  an  account  of  it  may  in  all  probability 
prove  of  interest  to  many  of  our  readers.  The  process  is  as 
follows  :  Grind  a  small  quantity  of  a  peculiar  pigment  called 
•"Chinese  blue,"  along  with  about  double  the  quantity  of 
finely-powdered  chromate  of  potash,  and  a  sufficient  quantity 
•of  copal  varnish  thinned  with  turpentine.  The  mixture  re- 
quires the  most  elaborate  grinding  or  incorporating  of  its 
ingredients,  otherwise  it  will  not  be  transparent,  and  there- 
fore useless  for  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended.  The 
"  tone"  of  the  color  may  be  varied  by  an  alteration  in  the 
proportion  of  the  ingredients.  A  preponderance  of  chromate 
of  potash  causes  a  yellowish  shade  in  the  green,  as  might 
have  been  expected,  and  vice  versa  with  the  blue  under  the 
same  circumstances.  This  colored  varnish  will  produce  a 
very  striking  effect  in  japanned  goods,  paper  hangings,  etc., 
and  can  be  made  at  a  very  cheap  rate. 

Iron  Work,  Bright  Varnish  for. — Dissolve  31bs.  of  resin  in 
10  pints  boiled  linseed  oil,  and  add  2  Ibs.  of  turpentine. 

Map  Varnish. — Clear  Canada  balsam,  4  oz. ;  turpentine, 
8  oz.  Warm  gently  and  shake  until  dissolved.  Maps,  draw- 
ings, etc.,  which  are  to  be  varnished  with  this  solution, 
should  be  first  brushed  over  with  a  solution  of  isinglass  and 
allowed  to  dry  thoroughly. 

Mastic. — Mastic,  6  oz.-;  turpentine,  1  quart.  Tough,  hard, 
brilliant  and  colorless.  Excellent  for  common  woodwork. 

Metals — Bright,  Varnish  for. — In  order  to  make  alcoholic 
varnish  adhere  more  firmly  to  polished  metallic  surfaces,  A. 
Morell  adds  one  part  of  pure  crystallized  boracic  acid  to  200 
parts  of  the  varnish.  Thus  prepared  it  adheres  so  firmly  to  the 
metal  that  it  cannot  be  scratched  off  with  the  finger  nail ;  it  ap- 
pears, in  fact,  like  a  glaze.  If  more  boracic  acid  is  added  than 
above  recommended  the  varnish  loses  its  intensity  of  color. 

Paintings,  Varnish  for. — A  good  varnish  can  be  made  as 
follows  :  Mastic,  six  ounces  ;  pure  turpentine,  one-half 
ounce  ;  camphor,  two  drachms  ;  spirits  of  turpentine,  nine- 
teen ounces  ;  add  first  the  camphor  to  the  turpentine.  The 
mixture  is  made  in  a  water-bath,  and  when  the  solution  is 
effected,  add  the  mastic  and  the  spirits  of  turpentine  near 
the  end  of  the  operation,  then  filter  through  a  cotton  cloth. 
JThe  varnish  should  be  laid  on  very  carefully. 


142  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

IZust,  Varnish  for  Preventing. — A  varnish  for  this  purpose 
may  be  made  of  120  parts  resin,  180  sandarac,  50  gumlae. 
They  should  be  heated  gradually  until  melted,  and  thor- 
oughly mixed,  then  120  parts  turpentine  added,  and  sub- 
sequently, after  further  heating,  180  parts  rectified  alcohol. 
After  careful  filtration,  it  should  be  put  into  tightly-corked 
bottles. 

Shellac  Varnish. — Dissolve  good  shellac  or  seed  lac  in 
alcohol,  making  the  varnish  of  any  consistence  desired. 
NOTE. — Shellac  gives  a  pale  cinnamon  colored  varnish. 
Varnish  made  with  seed  lac  is  deeper  colored  and  redder. 
If  colorless  varnish  is  desired  use  bleached  shellac,  an  article 
which  is  to  be  had  at  most  drug  stores. 

Tortoise  Shell  Japan.— fake  good  linseed  oil,  one  gallon  ; 
amber,  one-half  pound  ;  boil  together  until  the  fluid  is  brown 
and  thick.  Then  strain  through  a  cloth  and  boil  again  until 
of  consistency  of  pitch,  when  it  is  fit  for  use.  Having  pre- 
pared this  varnish  well,  clean  the  article  to  be  japanned,  and 
then  brush  the  parts  over  with  verniillion  mixed  Avith  shellac; 
varnish,  or  with  drying  oil  diluted  with  turpentine.  "Wlic.n 
this  coat  is  dry.  brush  the  whole  with  the  amber  varnish 
diluted  to  a  proper  consistency  with  turpentine,  and  then, 
when  set  firm,  put  the  article  into  a  hot  stove  to  undergo  heat 
for  as  long  a  time  as  required  to  produce  the  desired  effect. 
In  some  instances  as  much  as  two  weeks  may  be  required, 
after  which  finish  in  an  annealing  oven. 

Turpentine  Varnish. — Clear  pale  resin,  5  Ibs. ;  turpentine, 
7  Ibs.  Dissolve  in  any  convenient  vessel. 

Varnish  for  Violins  and  similar  articles. — Sandarach,  6  oz. ; 
mastic,  3  oz. ;  turpentine  varnish,  one-half  pint ;  alcohol  1 
gallon.  Keep  in  a  tight  tin  can  in  a  warm  place  until  the 
gums  are  dissolved. 

Varnish  for  Replacing  Turpentine  and  Linseed  Oil  Paints. — 
Fr.  Theis,  of  Bissendorf,  prepares  a  varnish  consisting  of  100 
parts  of  resin,  20  parts  of  crystallized  carbonate  of  soda,  and 
50  parts  of  water,  by  heating  these  substances  together  and 
mixing  them  with  a  solution  of  24  parts  of  strong  liquor 
ammonia  in  250  parts  of  water.  With  the  mass  thus  obtained 
the  pigments  are  levigated  without  the  addition  of  linseed 
oil  or  turpentine  ;  the  paint  dries  readily  without  the  aid  of 
a  drier  and  looks  very  well,  especially  when  varnished.  The 
paint  keeps  well,  even  under  water,  and  becomes  very 


THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION.  '  143 

The  cost  is  said  to  be  about  one-third  that  of  ordinary  oil 
paints. 

White,  Hard  Varnish  for  Wood  or  Metal. — Mastic,  2  oz. ; 
sandarach,  8  oz. ;  elemi,  1  oz. ;  Strasbourg  or  Scio  turpentine, 
4  oz. :  alcohol,  1  quart. 

White  Varnish  for  Paper,  Wood  or  Linen. — Sandarach, 
8  oz. ;  mastic,  2  oz. ;  Canada  balsam,  4  oz. ;  alcohol,  1  quart. 

White  Spirit  Varnish. — Rectified  spirit,  1  gallon  ;  gum 
sandarach,  2}  Ibs.  Put  these  ingredients  into  a  tin  bottle, 
warm  gently  and  shake  till  dissolved.  Then  add  a  pint  of 
pale  turpentine  varnish. 

Wood,  Parisian  Varnish  for. — To  prepare  a  good  varnish 
for  fancy  woods,  dissolve  one  part  of  good  shellac  in  "three  to 
four  parts  of  alcohol  of  92  per  cent,  in  a  water-bath,  and 
cautiously  add  distilled  water  iintil  a  curdy  mass  separates 
out,  which  is  collected  and  pressed  between  linen;  the  liquid 
is  filtered  through  paper,  all  the  alcohol  removed  by  distilla- 
tion from  the  Avater  bath,  and  the  resin  removed  and  dried  at 
100 3  centigrade  until  it  ceases  to  lose  weight;  it  is  then 
dissolved  in  double  its  weight  of  alcohol  of  at  least  96 
per  cent. ,  and  the  solution  perfumed  with  lavender  oil. 

Wood — Stained,  Varnish  for. — A  solution  of  four  ounces  of 
sandarac,  one  ounce  gum  mastic,  and  four  ounces  shellac,  in 
one  pound  of  alcohol,  to  which  two  ounces  oil  of  turpentine 
is  added,  can  be  recommended  as  a  varnish  over  stained 
woods. 

Varnishing. 

Before  beginning  to  varnish,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
surface  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied,  should  be  perfectly 
free  from  all  grease  and  smoke  stains,  for  it  will  be  found 
if  this  is  not  attended  to,  the  varnish  will  not  dry  hard. 
If  the  varnish  is  to  be  applied  to  old  articles,  it  is  necessary 
to  wash  them  very  carefully  with  soap  and  water  before  ap- 
plying it.  When  it  is  wished  that  the  varnish  should  dry 
quickly  and  hard,  it  is  necessary  to  be  careful  that  the  var- 
nish should  always  be  kept  as  long  a  time  as  possible  before 
being  used  ;  and  also  that  too  high  a  temperature  has  not 
been  used  in  manufacturing  the  varnish  employed.  It  is 
likewise  customary,  when  it  can  be  done,  to  expose  the  article 
to  the  atmosphere  of  a  heated  room.  This  is  called  stoving 
it,  and  is  found  to  greatly  improve  the  appearance  of  the 


144  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

work,  as  well  as  to  cause  the  varnish  to  dry  quickly.  After 
the  surface  is  varnished,  to  remove  all  the  marks  left  by  the 
brush,  it  is  usually  carefully  polished  with  finely-powdered 
pumice  stone  and  water.  Afterwards,  to  give  the  surface  the 
greatest  polish  it  is  capable  of  receiving,  it  is  rubbed  over 
with  a  clean  soft  rag,  on  the  surface  of  which  a  mixture  of 
very  finely  powdered  tripoli  and  oil  has  been  applied.  The 
surface  is  afterwards  cleaned  with  a  soft  rag  and  powdered 
starch,  and  the  last  polish  is  given  with  the  palm  of  the  hand. 
This  method  is,  however,  only  employed  when  those  varnishes 
are  used  which,  when  dry,  become  sufficiently  hard  to  admit 
of  it. 

A  good  surface  may  be  produced  on  unpainted  wood  by 
the  following  treatment :  Glass-paper  the  wood  thoroughly  as 
for  French  polishing,  size  it,  and  lay  on  a  coat  of  varnish, 
very  thin,  with  a  piece  of  sponge  or  Avadding  covered  with  a 
piece  of  linen  rag.  When  dry,  rub  down  with  pumice  dust, 
and  apply  a  second  coat  of  varnish.  Three  or  four  coats 
should  produce  a  surface  almost  equal  to  French  polish,  if 
the  varnish  is  good  and  the  pumice  dust  be  well  applied 
between  each  coat.  The  use  of  a  sponge  or  wadding  instead 
of  a  brush  aids  in  preventing  the  streaky  appearance  usually 
caused  by  a  brush  in  the  hands  of  an  unskilled  person. 

When  varnish  is  laid  on  a  piece  of  cold  furniture  or  a  cold 
carriage-body,  even  after  it  has  been  spread  evenly  and  with 
dispatch,  it  will  sometimes  "crawl"  and  roll  this  way  and 
that  way  as  if  it  were  a  liquid  possessing  vitality  and  the  power 
of  locomotion.  It  is  sometimes  utterly  impossible  to  varnish 
an  article  at  all  satisfactorily  during  cold  weather  and  in  a 
cold  apartment.  In  cold  and  damp  weather  a  carriage,  chair 
or  any  other  article  to  be  varnished  should  be  kept  in  a  clean 
and  warm  apartment  where  there  is  no  dust  flying,  until  the 
entire  woodwork  and  iron-work  have  been  warmed  through 
and  through,  to  a  temperature  equal  to  that  of  summer  heat — 
say  eighty  degrees.  That  temperature  should  be  maintained 
day  and  night.  If  a  fire  is  kept  for  only  eight  or  ten  hours 
during  the  day,  the  furniture  will  be  cold,  even  in  a  warm 
paint-room.  Before  any  varnish  is  applied,  some  parts  of  the 
surface  which  may  have  been  handled  frequently,  should  be 
rubbed  with  a  woolen  cloth  dipped  in  spirits  of  turpentine, 
so  as  to  remove  any  greasy,  oleaginous  matter  which  may 
have  accumulated.  Table-beds,  backs  of  chairs,  and  fronts 


THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION.  145 

of  bureau  drawers  are  sometimes  so  thoroughly  glazed  over 
that  varnish  will  not  aclbere  to  the  surface,  any  more  than 
water  will  lie  smoothly  on  recently  painted  casings.  Tli3 
varnish  should  also  be  warm — not  hot — and  it  should  be 
spread  quickly  and  evenly.  As  soon  as  it  flows  from  the 
brush  readily  and  spreads  evenly,  and  before  it  commences 
to  set,  let  the  rubbing  or  brushing  cease.  Oae  can  always 
do  a  better  job  by  laying  on  a  coat  of  medium  heaviness, 
rather  than  a  very  light  coat  or  a  covering  so  heavy  that  the 
varnish  will  hang  down  in  ridges.  Varnish  must  be  of  tho 
proper  consistency,  in  order  to  flow  just  right  and  to  set 
with  a  smooth  surface.  If  it  is  cither  too  thick  or  too  thin 
one  cannot  do  a  neat  job. 

When  it  is  wished  to  varnish  drawings,  engravings,  or 
other  paper  articles,  it  is  usual  to  give  them  a  coat  of  size 
before  applying  the  varnish.  For  the  preparation  of  Size  see 
article  under  that  head. 

To  Restore  Spotted  Varnish. — If  the  varnish  has  been 
blistered  by  heat  or  corroded  by  strong  acids,  the  only 
remedy  is  to  scrape  or  sandpaper  the  article  and  revarnish. 
Spots  may  often  be  removed  by  the  following  process  :  Make 
a  mixture  of  eqiial  parts  of  linseed  oil,  alcohol  and  turpentine, 
sWyhtly  moisten  a  rag  with  it,  and  rub  the  spots  until  they 
disappear.  Then  polish  the  spot  with  ordinary  blotting 
paper.  Varnish  injured  by  heat  can  hardly  be  restored  in 
any  other  way  than  by  removing  it  and  applying  a  fresh 
coat. 

Voltaic  Batteries. 

In  every  kind  of  battery  it  is  essential  that  the  connections 
be  bright,  and  that  the  metal  surfaces  which  are  to  be  united 
should  be  brought  together  under  considerable  pressure. 
Those  batteries  which  depend  for  contact  upon  light  springs, 
and  the  mere  placing  of  wires  in  holes,  lose  a  great  deal  of 
available  power.  The  surfaces  ought  invariably  to  be  filed 
bright  and  pressed  together  by  means  of  screws.  We  have 
frequently  seen  the  action  of  the  batteries  used  for  medical 
purposes  entirely  stopped  by  a  thin  film  of  oxide. 

The  zincs  also  should  always  be  thoroughly  amalgamated  to 
prevent  waste.  When  the  zincs  are  new  and  uncorroded, 
amalgamation  is  an  easy  process.  Dip  the  zincs  in  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  (8  parts  water  and  1  of  acid),  and  rub  them 


148  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION, 

with  mercury.  The  mercury  will  adhere  quite  readily  and 
render  the  entire  surface  brilliant  and  silvery.  But  when  the 
zincs  are  old  and  corroded  it  will  be  found  that  the  mercury 
does  not  adhere  to  some  parts.  In  such  cases  wash  the  sur- 
face of  the  zinc  with  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  mercury  and  it 
will  become  coated  with  amalgam.  Once  the  surface  is 
touched,  it  is  easy  to  add  as  much  mercury  as  may  be  desired 
by  simply  rubbing  on  the  liquid  metal. 

The  coating  of  mercury  adds  greatly  to  the  durability  of 
the  zincs,  as  when  so  prepared  the  acid  will  not  act  on  them 
except  when  the  current  is  passing,  and  from  the  excellent 
condition  of  the  entire  surface  the  power  of  the  batteiy  is 
greatly  increased. 

Watch— Care  of. 

1.  Wind  your  watch  as  nearly  as  possible  at  same  hour 
every  day.  2.  Be  careful  that  the  key  is  in  good  condition,  as 
there  is  much  danger  of  injuring  the  works  when  the  key  is 
worn  or  cracked  ;  there  are  more  main  springs  and  chains 
broken  through  a  jerk  in  winding  than  from  any  other  cause, 
which  injury  will  sooner  or  later  be  the  result  if  the  key  be 
in  bad  order.  3.  As  all  metals  contract  by  cold  and  expand 
by  heat,  it  must  be  manifest  that  to  keep  the  watch  as  nearly 
as  possible  at  one  temperature,  is  a  necessary  piece  of  atten- 
ti  Y.I.  4.  Keep  the  watch  as  constantly  as  possible  in  one 
position,  that  is,  if  it  hangs  by  day  let  it  hang  by  night, 
against  something  soft.  5.  The  hands  of  a  pocket  chronom- 
eter or  duplex  watch  should  never  be  set  backwards  ;  in  other 
watches  this  a  matter  of  110  consequence.  6.  The  glass 
should  never  be  opened  in  watches  which  set  a-nd  regulate  at 
the  back.  One  or  two  directions  more  it  is  of  vital  importance 
that  you  bear  in  mind.  On  regulating  a  watch,  should  it  be 
fast,  move  the  regulator  a  trifle  towards  the  slow  ;  and  if 
going  slow,  do  the  reverse  ;  you  cannot  move  the  regulator 
too  slightly  or  too  gently  at  a  time,  and  the  only  inconven- 
ience that  can  arise  is  having  to  perform  the  operation  more 
than  once.  On  the  contrary,  if  you  move  the  regulator  too 
much  at  a  time,  you  will  be  as  far,  if  not  further  than  ever, 
from  attaining  your  object,  so  that  you  may  repeat  the  move- 
ment until  quite  tired  and  disappointed,  stoutly  blaming 
both  watch  and  watchmaker,  while  the  fault  is  entirely  your 
own.  Again,  you  cannot  be  too  careful  in  respect  of  the 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  147 

nature  and  condition  of  your  watch-pocket ;  see  that  it  be 
made  of  something  soft  and  pliant,  such  as  wash-leather, 
which  is  the  best,  and  also  that  there  be  no  Hue  or  nap  that 
may  be  torn  off  when  taking  the  watch  out  of  the  pocket. 
Cleanliness,  too.  is  as  needful  here  as  in  the  key  before  wind- 
ing ;  for,  if  there  be  dust  or  dirt  in  either  instance,  it  will, 
you  may  rely  upon  it,  work  its  way  into  the  watch,  as  well 
as  wear  away  the  engine-turning  of  the  case. 

Waterproofing. 

Porous  goods  are  made  waterproof  according  to  two  very 
distinct  systems.  According  to  the  first  the  articles  are  made 
absolutely  impervious  to  Avater  and  air  by  having  their  pores 
filled  up  with  some  oily  or  gummy  substance,  which  becomes 
stiff  and  impenetrable.  Caoutchouc,  paints,  oils,  melted  wax, 
etc. ,  are  of  this  kind.  The  other  system  consists  in  making 
the  fabric  repellent  to  water,  while  it  remains  quite  porous 
and  freely  admits  the  passage  of  air.  Goods  so  prepared 
will  resist  any  ordinary  rain,  and  we  have  seen  a  very  porous 
fabric  stretched  over  the  mouth  of  a  vessel  and  resist  tho 
passage  of  water  one  or  two  inches  deep.  The  following 
recipes  have  been  tried  and  found  good.  Most  of  those  found 
in  th"e  recipe  books  are  worthless. 

To  Render  Leather  Waterproof. — 1.  Melt  together  2  oz.  of 
Burgundy  pitch,  2  oz.  of  soft  wax,  2  oz.  of  turpentine,  and  1 
pint  of  raw  linseed  oil.  Lay  on  with  a  brush  while  warm. 

2.  Melt  3  oz.  lard  and  add  1  oz.  powdered  resin.  This 
mixture  remains  soft  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and  is  an  ex- 
cellent application  for  leather. 

Water-proof  Canvas  for  Covering  Carts,  etc. — 9£  gallons 
linseed  oil,  1  Ib.  litharge,  1  Ib.  urnber,  boiled  together  for  21 
hours.  May  be  colored  with  any  paint.  Lay  on  with  a 
brush. 

To  Make  Sailcloth  Impervious  to  Water,  and  yet  Pliant 
and  Durable. — Grind  6  Ibs.  English  ochre  with  boiled  oil,  and 
add  1  Ib.  of  black  paint,  Avhich  mixture  forms  an  indifferent 
black.  An  ounce  of  yellow  soap,  dissolved  by  heat  in  half  a 
pint  of  water,  is  mixed  while  hot  with  the  paint.  This  com- 
position is  laid  upon  dry  canvas  as  stiff  as  can  conveniently 
be  done  with  the  brush.  Two  days  after,  a  second  coat  of 
ochre  and  black  paint  (without  any  soap)  is  laid  on,  and, 
allowing  this  coat  time  to  dry,  the  canvas  is  finished  with  a. 


148  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

coat  of  any  desired  color.  After  three  days  it  does  not  stick 
together  when  folded  up.  This  is  the  formula  used  in  the 
British  navy  yards,  and  it  has  given  excellent  results.  We 
have  seen  a  portable  boat  made  of  canvas  prepared  in  this 
way  and  stretched  on  a  skeleton  frame. 

Metallic  Soap  for  Canvas. — The  following  is  highly  recom- 
mended as  a  cheap  and  simple  process  for  coating  canvas  for 
wagon  tops,  tents,  awnings,  etc.  It  renders  it  impermeable 
to  moisture,  without  making  it  stiff  and  liable  to  break. 
Soft  soap  is  to  be  dissolved  in  hot  water,  and  a  solution  of 
sulphate  of  iron  added.  The  sulphuric  acid  combines  with 
the  potash  of  the  soap,  and  the  oxide  of  iron  is  precipitated 
with  the  fatty  acid  as  insoluble  iron  soap.  This  is  washed 
and  dried,  and  mixed  with  linseed  oil.  The  soap  prevents 
the  oil  from  getting  hard  and  cracking,  and  at  the  same  time 
water  has  no  effect  on  it. 

The  following  recipes  are  intended  to  be  applied  to  woven 
fabrics,  which  they  leave  quite  pervious  to  air  but  capable 
of  resisting  water. 

1.  'Apply  a  strong  solution  of  soap,  not  mere  soap  suds,  to 
the  wrong  side  of  the  cloth,  and  when  dry  wash  the  other 
side  with  a  solution  of  alum. 

2.  The  following  recipe  is  substantially  the  same  as  the 
preceding,  but  if  carefully  followed  in  its  details  gives  better 
results  : 

Take  the  material  successively  through  baths  of  sulphate 
of  alumina,  of  soap  and  of  water  ;  then  dry  and  smother  or 
calender.  For  the  alumina  bath,  use  the  ordinary  neutral 
sulphate  of  alumina  of  commerce  (concentrated  alum  cake), 
dissolving  1  part  in  10  of  water,  which  is  easily  done  without 
the  application  of  heat.  The  soap  is  best  prepared  in  this 
manner :  Boil  1  part  of  light  resin,  1  part  of  soda  crystals, 
and  10  of  water,  till  the  resin  is  dissolved  ;  salt  the  soap  out 
by  the  addition  of  one-third  part  of  common  salt ;  dissolve 
this  soap  with  an  equal  amount  of  good  palm  oil  soap  (navy 
soap)  in  30  parts  of  water.  The  soap  bath  should  be  kept 
hot  while  the  goods  are  passing  through  it.  It  is  best  to  have 
three  vats  along  side  of  each  other,  and  by  a  special  ai'rangc- 
ment  to  keep  the  goods  down  in  the  baths.  Special  care 
should  be  taken  to  have  the  fabric  thoroughly  soaked  in  tho 
alumina  bath. 

3.  Drs.  Hager  and  Jacobsen  remark  that  during  the  last 


•     THE  WOBKSHP"  COMPANION.  149 

few  years  very  good  and  ch^p  waterproof  goods  of  this  de- 
scription have  been  manufactured  in  Berlin,  which  they 
believe  is  effected  by  steeping  them  first  in  a  bath  of  sulphate 
of  alumina  and  of  copper,  and  then  into  one  of  water-glass 
and  resin  soap. 

Whitewash. 

The  process  of  whitewashing  is  known  by  various  names, 
such  as  "  calcimining. "  "  kalsomining, "  etc.,  most  of  them 
derived  evidently  from  the  latin  name  for  lime,  which  was 
the  principal  ingredient  of  all  the  older  forms  of  white- 
wash. 

Professors  of  the  "Art  of  Kalsomining"  affect  a  great 
deal  of  mystery,  but  the  process  is  very  simple.  It  consists 
simply  in  making  a  whitewash  with  some  neutral  substance 
which  is  made  to  adhere  by  means  of  size  or  glue.  It  contains 
no  caustic  material  like  lime.  Several  substances  have  been 
used  with  good  results.  The  best  is  zinc  white.  It  gives  the 
most  brilliant  effect  but  is  the  most  expensive  r  The  next  is 
Paris  white  or  sulphate  of  baryta.  This,  when  pure,  is  nearly 
equal  to  zinc  white,  but,  unfortunately,  common  whiting  is 
often  sold  for  it,  and  more  often  mixed  with  it.  It  is  not 
difficult,  however,  to  detect  common  whiting  either  when 
alone  or  mixed  with  Paris  white.  When  vinegar,  or  better 
still,  spirits  of  salt,  is  poured  on  whiting,  it  foams  or  effer- 
vesces, but  produces  no  effect  on  Paris  white.  Good  whiting, 
however,  gives  very  fair  results  and  makes  a  far  better  finish 
than  common  lime  as  ordinarily  used.  When  well  made, 
however,  good  lime  whitewash  is  very  valuable  for  out-houses, 
and  places  where  it  is  desirable  to  introduce  a  certain  degree 
of  disinfecting  action.  One  of  the  best  recipes  for  lime 
whitewash  is  that  known  as  the  "  White  House"  whitewash, 
and  sometimes  called  "Treasury  Department''  whitewash, 
from  the  fact  that  it  is  the  recipe  sent  out  by  the  Lighthouse 
Board  of  the  Treasury  Department.  It  has  been  found,  by  ex- 
perience, to  answer  on  wood,  brjck  and  stone,  nearly  as  well 
as  oil  paint,  and  is  much  cheaper.  Slake  one-half  bushel 
unslaked  lime  with  boiling  water,  keeping  it  covered  during 
the  process.  Strain  it  and  add  a  peck  of  salt,  dissolved  in 
warm  water  ;  three  pounds  ground  rice,  put  in  boiling  water 
and  boiled  to  a  thin  paste  ;  one-half  pound  powdered  Spanish 
whiting  and  a  pound  of  clear  glue,  dissolved  in  warm  water ; 


150  THE  WORKSHOP  -COMPANION. 

mix  these  well  together  and  let  the  mixture  stand  for  several 
days.  Keep  the  wash  thus  prepared  in  a  kettle  or  portable 
furnace,  and,  when  used,  put  it  on  as  hot  as  possible  with 
painters'  or  whitewash  brushes. 

Kalsomine,  as  distinguished  from  lime  whitewash,  is  best 
suited  for  the  interior  of  rooms  in  the  dwelling  house.  To 
kalsomine  a  good  sized  room  with  two  coats,  proceed  as 
follows  : 

Select  some  very  clear  colorless  glue  and  soak  J  Ib.  in  water 
for  12  hours.  Then  boil  it,  taking  great  care  that  it  does  not 
burn,  and  this  is  best  done  by  setting  the  vessel  with  the  glue 
in  a  pan  of  water  over  the  fire.  When  completely  dissolved 
add  it  to  a  large  pail  of  hot  water,  and  into  any  desired 
quantity  of  this  stir  as  much  of  the  white  material  used  as 
will  make  a  cream.  The  quality  of  the  resulting  work  will 
depend  on  the  skill  of  the  operator,  but  we  may  remark  that 
it  is  easier  to  get  a  smooth  hard  finish  by  using  three  coats 
of  thin  wash  than  by  using  one  coat  of  thick.  If  you  have 
time  for  but  one  coat,  however,  you  must  give  it  body  enough, 
In  giving  more  than  one  coat  let  the  last  coat  contain  less 
glue  than  the  preceding  ones. 

Kalsomine,  such  as  we  have  described,  may  be  colored 
by  means  of  any  of  the  cheap  coloring  stuffs. 

The  following  is  recommended  as  a  good  kalsomining  fluid 
for  walls  :  White  glue,  1  pound  ;  white  zinc,  10  pounds  ; 
Paris  white,  5  pounds  ;  water,  sufficient.  Soak  the  glue  over 
night  in  three  quarts  of  water,  then  add  as  much  water  again, 
and  heat  on  a  water  bath  till  the  glue  is  dissolved.  In  another 
pail  put  the  two  .powders,  and  pour  on  hot  water,  stirring  all 
the  time,  until  the  liquid  appears  like  thick  milk.  Mingle 
the  two  liquids  together,  stir  thoroughly,  and  apply  to  the 
wall  with  a  whitewash  brush. 

It  is  often  desirable  to  "  kill "  old  whitewash,  as  it  is  called, 
as  otherwise  it  would  be  impossible  to  get  new  whitewash 
or  paper  to  stick  to  the  walls.  After  scraping  and  washing 
off  all  lose  material  give  the  walls  a  thorough  washing  with 
a  solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc  (2  oz.  to  1  gallon  of  water). 
The  lime  will  be  changed  to  plaster  of  Paris,  and  the  zinc 
will  be  converted  into  zinc  white,  and  if  a  coat  of  kalsomine 
be  now  given  it  will  adhere  very  strongly  and  have  great 
body.  < 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  151 

Wood-Floors. 

The  following  method  of  staining  floors  in  oak  or  walnut 
colors  is  highly  commended  by  the  London  Furniture  Gazette; 
Put  1  oz.  Vandyke  brown  in  oil,  3  oz,  pearlash,  and  2  drins: 
dragon's  blood,  into  an  earthenware  pan  or  large  pitcher  { 
pour  on  the  mixture  1  quart  of  boiling  water  ;  stii  with  rt 
piece  of  wood.  The  stain  may  be  used  hot  or  colds  The 
boards  should  be  smoothed  with  a  plane  and  glass-papered  j 
fill  up  the  cracks  with  plaster  of  Paris  ;  the  brush  should  not 
be  rubbed  across  the  boards,  but  lengthwise.  Only  a  small 
piece  should  be  done  at  a  time.  By  rubbing  on  one  place 
more  than  another  an  appearance  of  oak  or  walnut  is  moro 
apparent  ;  when  quite  dry,  the  boards  should  be  sized  with 
glue  size,  made  by  boiling  glue  in  water,  and  brushing  it  in 
the  boards  hot.  "When  this  is  dry,  the  boards  should  be 
papered  smooth  and  varnished  with  brown  hard  varnish  or 
oak  varnish  ;  the  brown  hard  varnish  will  wear  better  and 
dry  quicker  ;  it  should  be  thinned  with  a  little  French  polish, 
and  laid  on  the  boards  with  a  smooth  brush. 

Wax  for  Polishing  Floors. — To  prepare  this,  12£  pounds 
yellow  Avax,  rasped,  are  stirred  into  a  hot  solution  of  6  pounds 
good  pearlash,  in  rain  water.  Keeping  the  mixture  well 
stirred  while  boiling,  it  is  first  quiet,  but  soon  commences  to 
froth  ;  and  when  the  effervescence  ceases,  heat  is  stopped, 
and  there  are  added  to  the  mixture,  while  still  stirring,  0 
pounds  dry  yellow  ochre.  It  may  then  be  poured  into  tin 
cans  or  boxes,  and  hardens  on  cooling.  When  wanted  for 
use,  a  pound  of  it  is  diffused  into  5  pints  boiling  hot  water, 
and  the  mixture  well  stirred,  applied  while  still  hot  to  the 
floor  by  means  of  a  paint  brush.  It  dries  in  a  few  hours, 
after  which  the  floor  is  to  be  polished  with  a  large  floor  brush 
and  afterwards  wiped  with  a  coarse  woolen  cloth  A  coat  of 
this  wax  will  last  six  months. 

Wood— Polishing. 

Knotted  or  cross-grained  wood  cannot  be  planed  with  the 
planes  used  for  deal,  but  with  a  special  tool,  of  which  the 
iron  is  placed  at  a  more  obtuse  angle.  These  planes  can  be  had 
in  wood  or  metal,  and  are  in  general  use  by  cabinet-makers. 
They  are  named  according  to  the  angle  at  which  the  iron  is 
placed.  For  deal  and  soft  wood  this  is  45  degrees,  or  York 
pitch  ;  while  the  iron  set  at  55  degrees,  middle  pitch,  or  60 


152  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION, 

degrees,  half  pitch,  is  Used  for  molding  planes  for  soft  and  hard 
wood.  When  the  latter  is,  however,  very  knotty,  it  is  worked 
over  in  all  directions  with  a  toothing  plane,  so  as  to  cut  across 
the  fibres  and  reduce  the  surface  to  a  general  level.  It  is 
then  finished  by  the  scraper,  often  a  piece  of  freshly  broken 
glass,  but  more  properly  a  thin  plate  of  steel  set  in  a  piece  of 
wood,  and  ground  off  quite  square.  The  edge  is  then  often 
rubbed  with  a  burnisher,  to  turn  up  a  slight  wire  edge. 
This  will  scrape  down  the  surface  of  the  wood  until  it  is 
ready  for  "  papering,"  i.  e.,  being  further  smoothed  by  glass 
or  sandpaper.  This  is  to  be  rubbed  in  all  directions,  until 
the  work  has  an  even  surface,  and  the  lines  thus  produced 
are  further  reduced  by  the  finest  sandpaper,  marked  00. 
After  this  it  is  rubbed  over  with  a  bit  of  flannel,  dipped  in 
linseed  oil,  and  allowed  to  dry.  This  oiling  is  then  repeated, 
and  the  work  again  set  aside  for  a  day  or  more,  until  the  oil 
is  fairly  absorbed. 

If  the  wood  be  porous  it  must  first  \)Q  filled,  as  it  is  called, 
and  for  this  nothing  is  better  than  whiting  colored  so  as  to 
resemble  the  wood  and  kept  dry.  Rub  the  wood  with  linseed 
oil  and  then  sprinkle  it  with  whiting.  Rub  the  latter  well  in, 
wipe  it  off  carefully  and  give  time  to  dry.  This  is  far  su- 
perior to  size. 

The  polish — French  polish — is  made  by  dissolving  shellac 
in  alcohol,  methylated  spirits,  or  even  naphtha.  This  is 
facilitated  by  placing  the  jar  or  bottle  in  a  warm  place,  on 
a  stove  or  by  the  fire.  Other  gums  are  often  added,  but  arc 
not  generally  necessary.  In  short,  no  two  polishers  use  pre- 
cisely similar  ingredients,  but  shellac  is  the  base  of  all  of 
them.  The  following  recipes  have  been  collected  from  various 
sources  more  or  less  reliable  : 

1.  Shellac,  4  oz. ;  alcohol,  1  pLJ 2.  Shellac,  4  oz. ;  sarHl- 

arac,  £  oz. ;  alcohol,  1  pint 3.  Finishing  polish  :  Alcohol 

(95  per  cent.),  £  pint;  shellac,  2  dr.;  gum  benzoin,  2  dr.; 
put  into  a  bottle,  loosely  corking  it,  and  stand  it  near  a  fire, 
shaking  it  occasionally.  When  cold,  add  two  teaspoonfuls 
of  poppy  oil,  and  shake  well  together. 

These,  it  must  be  remembered,  are  polishes  to  be  applied 
by  means  of  rubbers,  and  not  by  a  brush.  Those  used  in  the 
latter  way  are  varnishes,  such  as  are  applied  to  cheap  wares 
and  also  to  parts  of  furniture  and  such  articles  as  are  carved 
and  cannot  in  consequence  be  finished  by  rubbing. 


THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION.       >  153 

The  polisher  generally  consists  of  a  wad  of  list  rolled 
spirally,  tied  with  twine  and  covered  with  a  few  thick- 
nesses of  linen  rag.  Apply  a  little  varnish  to  the  middle  of 
the  rubber  and  then  enclose  the  latter  in  a  soft  linen  rag 
folded  twice.  Moisten  the  face  of  the  linen  with  a  little  raw 
linseed  oil  applied  to  the  middle  of  it  by  means  of  the  finger. 
Pass  the  rubber  quickly  and  lightly  over  the  surface  of  the 
work  in  small  circular  strokes  until  the  varnish  becomes 
nearly  dry ;  charge  the  rubber  with  varnish  again  and 
repeat  the  rubbing  till  three  coats  are  laid  on,  when  a  little 
oil  may  be  applied  to  the  rubber  and  two  more  coats  given 
it.  Proceed  in  this  way  until  the  varnish  has  acquired  some 
thickness  ;  then  wet  the  inside  of  the  linen  cloth,  before  ap- 
plying the  varnish,  with  alcohol,  and  rub  quickly,  lightly 
and  uniformly,  the  whole  surface.  Lastly,  wet  the  linen 
cloth  with  a  little  oil  and  alcohol,  without  varnish,  and  rub 
as  before  till  dry.  Each  coat  is  to  be  rubbed  until  the  rag 
appears  dry,  and  too  much  varnish  must  not  be  put  on  the 
rag  at  one  time.  Be  also  very  particular  to  have  the  rags 
clean,  as  the  polish  depends  in  a  great  degree  u^on  keeping 
everything  free  from  dust  and  dirt. 

To  insure  success  the  work  must  be  ,done  in  a  warm  room, 
free  from  dust. 

Turned  articles  must  be  brought  to  a  fine  smooth  surface 
with  the  finest  sandpaper,  and  the  direction  of  the  motion 
should  be  occasionally  reversed  so  that  the  fibres  which  are 
laid  down  by  rubbing  one  way  may  be  raised  up  and  cut  off. 
To  apply  the  polish,  which  is  merely  a  solution  of  shellac  in 
alcohol,  take  three  or  four  thicknesses  of  linen  rag  and  place 
a  few  drops  of  polish  in  the  centre  ;  lay  over  this  a  single 
thickness  of  linen  rag  and  and  a  drop  or  two  of  raw  linseed 
oil  over  the  polish.  The  rubber  is  then  applied  with  light 
friction  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  work  while  revolving 
in  the  lathe,  never  allowing  the  hand  or  mandrel  to  remain 
still  for  an  instant,  so  as  to  spread  the  varnish  as  evenly  as 
possible,  especially  at  the  commencement,  and  paying  par- 
ticular attention  to  the  internal  angles,  so  as  to  prevent 
either  deficiency  or  excess  of  varnish  at  those  parts  The 
oil,  in  some  degree,  retards  the  evaporation  of  the  spirit 
from  the  varnish  and  allows  time  for  the  process  ;  it  also 
presents  a  smooth  surface  and  lessens  the  friction  against 
^he  tender  gum.  When  the  varnish  appears  dry,  a  second. 


154  THE  WOKKSHOP  COMPANION. 

third  and  even  further  quantities  are  applied  in  the  same 
manner,  working,  of  course,  more  particularly  upon  those 
parts  at  all  slighted  in  the  earlier  steps. 

Wood— Staining. 

In  preparing  any  of  the  tinctures  used  for  staining,  it  is  of 
importance  to  powder  or  mash  all  the  dry  stuffs  previous  to 
dissolving  or  macerating  them,  and  to  purify  all  the  liquids 
by  nitration  before  use.  Their  coloring  powers,  which 
mainly  depend  on  very  accurate  combinations  of  the  re- 
quisite ingredients,  should  always  be  carefully  tested  before 
a  free  use  is  made  of  them,  and  the  absorbent  properties  of 
the  materials  intended  to  be  stained  should  be  tested  like- 
wise. It  will  be  better  for  inexperienced  hands  to  coat  twice 
of  three  times  with  a  weak  stain  than  only  once  with  a  very 
strong  one,  as  by  adopting  the  first  mode  a  particular  tint 
may  be  gradually  effected,  whereas,  by  pursuing  the  latter 
course,  an  irremediable  discoloration  may  be  the  result. 
Coarse  pieces  of  carving,  spongy  end,  and  cross-grained 
woods,  should  be  previously  prepared  for  the  reception  of 
stain  ;  this  is  best  done  by  putting  on  a  thin  layer  of  varnish, 
letting  it  dry,  and  then  glass-papering  it  completely  off 
again.  Fine  work  merely  requires  to  be  oiled  and  slightly 
rubbed  with  the  finest  glass-paper.  Thus  prepared,  the 
woody  fibre  is  enabled  to  take  on  the  stain  more  regularly, 
and  to  retain  a  high  degree  of  smoothness.  When  stain  is 
put  on  with  a  flat  hog-hair  tool,  it  is  usually  softened  by  a 
skilful  but  moderate  application .  of  a  badger-hair  softener. 
The  steel  comb  is  chiefly  employed  for  streaking  artificial 
oak,  and  the  mottler  is  used  for  variegating  and  uniting  the 
shades  and  tints  of  mahogany.  Flannels  and  sponges  are 
often  used  instead  of  brushes," but  the  implements  most  ser 
viceable  for  veining  or  engraining  purposes  are  email  badger 
s.'ish  tools  and  sable  pencils.  The  effect  produced  by  a  coat 
of  stain  cannot  be  asceiiained  until  it  has  been  allowed  suf- 
ficient drying  period. 

This  process  may  be  used  either  for  improving  tL*»  natural 
color  of  wood  or  for  changing  it  so  completely  as  to  give  it 
the  appearance  of  an  entirely  different  kind  of  timber.  Thus 
a  light  mahogany  may  be  greatly  improved  by  being  made 
clarker,  and  there  are  many  other  kinds  of  timber  tlia^  ftfe. 


THE  WOEKSHOP  COMPANION.  155 

greatly  improved  by  a  slight  change  in  their  color.  The  fol- 
lowing notes  will  be  of  use  in  the  latter  direction  : 

A  solution  of  asphaltum  in  spirits  of  turpentine,  makes 
a  good  brown  stain  for  coarse  oaken  work,  which  is  only  in- 
tended to  be  varnished  with  boiled  oil. 

When  discolored  ebony  has  been  sponged  once  or  twice 
with  a  strong  decoction  of  gall-nuts,  to  which  a  quantity  of 
iron  tilings  or  rust  haa  been  added,  its  natural  blackness 
becomes  more  intense. 

Tbe  naturally  pale  ground  and  obscure  grain  of  Honduras 
mahogany  is  often  well  brought  out  by  its  being  coated  first 
with  spirits  of  hartshorn,  and  then  with  oil,  which  has  been 
tingod  with  madder  or  Venetian  red. 

Grayish  maple  may  be  whitened  by  carefully  coating  it 
with  a  solution  of  oxalic  acid  to  which  a  feAV  drops  of  nitric 
acid  have  been  added. 

Half  a  gallon  of  water  in  which  J  Ib.  of  oak  bark  and  the 
same  quantity  of  walnut  shells  or  peels  have  been  thoroughly 
boiled,  makes  an  excellent  improver  of  inferior  rosewood  ;  it 
is  also  far  before  any  other  of  its  kind  for  bringing  out 
walnut. 

Raw"  oil,  mixed  with  a  little  spirits  of  turpentine,  is 
universally  allowed  to  be  the  most  efficacious  improver  of 
the  greater  number  of  materials.  Beautiful  artificial  grain- 
ing may  be  imparted  to  various  specimens  of  timber  by 
means  of  a  camel-hair  pencil,  with  raw  oil  alone,  that  is, 
certain  portions  may  be  coated  two  or  three  times  very  taste- 
fully, so  as  to  resemble  the  rich  varying  veins  which  con- 
stitute the  fibril  figures  ;  while  the"  common,  plain  parts, 
which  constitute  the  ground  shades,  may  only  be  once 
coated  with  the  oil,  very  much  diluted  with  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine. The  following  are  a  few  useful  stains  : 

Mahogany. — 1.  Water,  1  gallon  ;  madder,  8  oz. ;  fustic, 
4  oz.  Boil.  Lay  on  with  a  brush  while  hot,  and  while  wet 
streak  it  with  black  to  vary  the  grain.  This  imitates  Hon- 
duras mahogany. 

2.  Madder,    8  oz. ;    fustic,    1  oz. ;  logwood,   2  oz. ;  water, 
1  gallon.     Boil  and  lay  on  while  hot.     Resembles  Spanish 
mahogany. 

3.  A  set  of  pine  shelves,  which  were  brushed  two  or  three 
times  with  a  strong  boiling  decoction  of  logwood  chips,  and 
varnished  with  solution  of  shellac  in  alcohol,  appear  almost 


156  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

i 

like  mahogany  both  in  color  and  hardness.  After  washing 
with  decoction  of  logwood  and  drying  thoroughly,  they  re- 
ceived two  coats  of  varnish.  They  were  then  carefully  sand- 
papered and  polished,  and  received  a  final  coat  of  shellac 
varnish. 

Imitation  Ebony. — There  are  two  processes  in  use  for  giving 
to  very  fine  grained  wood  the  appearance  of  ebony.  One  is 
a  mere  varnish,  and  may  be  applied  in  a  few  minutes,  as  it 
dries  very  rapidly.  Either  French  polish,  made  black  with 
any  fine  coloring  matter,  or  good  "  air-drying  black  varnish," 
may  be  applied.  This,  however,  gives  only  a  superficial 
coloring,  and  when  the  edges  and  corners  of  the  work  wear 
off,  the  light-colored  wood  shows.  The  other  method  is  as 
follows  :  Wash  any  compact  wood  with  a  boiling  decoction 
of  logwood  three  or  four  times,  allowing  it  to  dry  between 
each  application.  Then  wash  it  with  a  solution  of  acetate  of 
iron,  which  is  made  by  dissolving  iron  filings  in  vinegar. 
This  stain  is  very  black  and  penetrates  to  a  considerable 
depth  into  the  wood,  so  that  ordinary  scratching  or  chipping 
does  not  show  the  original  color.  Some  recipes  direct  the 
solutions  of  logwood  and  iron  to  be  mixed  before  being  ap- 
plied, but  this  is  a  great  mistake. 

Black  Walnut  Stain. — 1.  Take  asphaltum,  pulverize  it, 
place  it  in  a  jar  or  bottle,  pour  over  it  about  twice  its  bulk 
of  turpentine,  put  it  in  a  warm  place,  and  shake  it  from  time 
to  time.  When  dissolved,  strain  it  and  apply  it  to  the  wood 
with  a  cloth  or  stiff  brush.  If  it  should  make  too  dark  a 
stain  thin  it  with  turpentine.  This  will  dry  in  a  few  hours. 
If  it  is  desired  to  bring  out  the  grain  still  more,  apply  a 
mixture  of  boiled  oil  and  turpentine  ;  this  is  better  than  oil 
alone.  Put  no  oil  Avith  the  asphaltum  mixture  or  it  will 
dry  very  slowly.  When  the  oil  is  dry  the  wood  can  bo 
polished  with  the  following  :  Shellac  varnish,  of  the  usual 
consistency,  2  parts  ;  boiled  oil,  1  part.  Shake  it  well  before 
using  Apply  it  to  the  wood  by  putting  a  few  drops  on  a 
cloth  and  rubbing  briskly  on  the  Avood  for  a  feAV  moments. 
This  polish  works  \vell  on*old  varnished  furniture. 

2.  The  appearance  of  Avalnut  may  be  given  to  white  woods 
by  painting  or  sponging  them  with  a  concentrated  warm 
solution  of  permanganate  of  potassa.  The  effect  is  different 
on  different  kinds  of  timber,  some  becoming  stained  very 
rapidly,  others  requiring  more  time  for  the  result,  The  peiv 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION.  157 

manganate  is  decomposed  by  the  woody  fibre  ;  brown  per- 
oxide of  manganese  is  precipitated,  and  the  potash  is  after- 
wards removed  by  washing  with  water.  The  wood,  when 
dry,  may  \>e  varnished. 

Brown  Stain. — Paint  over  the  wood  with  a  solution  made 
by  boiling  1  part  of  catechu  (cutch  or  gambier)  with  30  parts 
of  water  and  a  little  soda.  This  must  be  allowed  to  dry  in 
the  air,  and  then  the  wood  is  to  be  painted  over  with  another 
solution  made  of  1  part  of  bichromate  of  potash  and  30  parts 
of  water.  By  a  little  difference  in  the  mode  of  treatment 
and  by  varying  the  strength  of  the  solutions,  various  shades 
of  color  may  be  given  with  these  materials,  which  will  be 
permanent  and  tend  to  preserve  the  wood. 

Staining  Oak. — According  to  Neidling,  a  beautiful  orange- 
yellow  tone,  much  admired  in  a  chest  at  the  Vienna  Exhibi- 
tion, may  be  imparted  to  oak  wood  by  rubbing  it  in  a  warm 
room  with  a  certain  mixture  until  it  acquires  a  dull  polish, 
and  then  coating  it  after  an  hour  with  thin  polish,  and  re- 
peating the  coating  of  polish  to  improve  the  depth  and 
brilliancy  of  the  tone.  The  ingredients  for  the  rubbing 
mixture  are  about  three  ounces  of  tallow,  three-fourths  of  an 
ounce  of  wax,  add  one  pint  of  oil  of  turpentine,  mixed  by 
heating  together  and  stirring. 

Darkening  Oak  Framing. — Take  one  ounce  of  carbonate  of 
soda,  and  dissolve  in  half  pint  boiling  water  ;  take  a  sponge 
or  piece  of  clean  rag,  saturate  it  in  the  solution  and  pass 
gently  over  the  wood  to  be  darkened,  so  that  it  is  wet  evenly 
all  over  ;  let  it  dry  for  24  hours.  Try  first  on  an  odd  piece 
of  wood  to  see  color  ;  if  too  dark,  make  the  solution  weaker 
by  adding  more  water  ;  if  not  dark  enough,  give  another 
coat.  This  may  always  be  kept  ready  for  use  in  a  bottle 
corked  up. 

Imitation  Rosewood. — Boil  one-half  ^jound  of  logwood  in 
three  pints  of  water  till  it  is  of  a  very  dark  red  ;  add  one-half 
ounce  of  salt  of  tartar.  Stain  the  work  with  the  liquor  while 
it  is  boiling  hot,  giving  three  coats  ;  then,  with  a  painter's 
graining  brush,  form  streaks  with  the  following  liquor  :  Boil 
one-half-pound  of  logwood  chips  in  two  quarts  of  water  ;  add 
one  ounce  of  peaiiash,  and  apply  hot. 


158  THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

Zinc. 

Zinc,  when  cast  into  plates  or  ingots,  is  a  brittle  metal, 
easily  broken  by  blows' from  a  hammer.  In  this  state  it  is 
evidently  somewhat  porous,  as  its  specific  gravity  is  only  6 '8, 
while  that  of  rolled  zinc  rises  as  high  as  7*2.  Zinc,  when 
heated  to  212°  Fall.,  or  over,  becomes  malleable  and  ductile, 
and  when  rolled  into  sheets  it  becomes  exceedingly  tough  and 
does  not  regain  its  brittle  character  on  cooling.  Hence,  sheet 
zinc  has  come  into  very  extensive  use  in  the  arts. 

To  Pulverise  Zinc. — Zinc  becomes  exceedingly  brittle  when 
heated  to  nearly  its  melting  point.  To  reduce  it  to  powder, 
therefore,  the  best  plan  is  to  pour  melted  zinc  into  a  dry  and 
warm  cast-iron  mortar,  and  as  soon  as  it  shows  signs  of 
solidifying  pound  it  with  the  pestle.  In  this  way  it  may  be 
reduced  to  a  very  fine  powder. 

Black  Varnish  for  Zinc. — Professor  Bottgor  prepares  a 
black  coating  for  zinc  by  dissolving  two  parts  nitrate  of  cop- 
per and  three  parts  crystallized  chloride  of  copper  in  sixty- 
four  parts  of  water,  and  adding  eight  parts  of  nitric  acid.  This, 
however,  is  quite  expensive  ;  and.  in  some  places  the  copper 
salts  are  very  difficult  to  obtain.  On  this  account  Puscher 
prepares  black  paint  or  varnish  with  the  following  simple 
ingredients  :  Equal  parts  of  chlorate  of  potash  and  blue 
vitriol  are  dissolved  in  thirty-six  times  as  much  warm  water, 
and  the  solution  left  to  cool.  If  the  sulphate  of  copper  used 
contains  iron,  it  is  precipitated  as  a  hydrated  oxide,  and  can 
be  removed  by  decantation  or  filtration.  The' zinc  castings 
are  then  immersed  for  a  few  seconds  in  the  solution  until 
quite  black,  rinsed  off  with  water,  and  dried.  Even  before  it 
is  dry.  the  black  coating  adheres  to  the  object  so  that  it  may 
be  wiped  dry  with  a  cloth.  A  more  economical  method, 
since  a  much  smaller  quantity  of  the  salt  solution  is  required, 
is  to  apply  it  repeatedly  with  a  sponge,  If  copper-colored 
spots  appear  during  the  operation,  the  solution  is  applied  to 
them  a  second  time,  and  after  a  while  they  turn  black.  As 
soon  as  the  object  becomes  equally  black  all  over,  it  is 
washed  with  water  and  dried.  On  rubbing,  the  coating  ac- 
quires a  glittering  appearance  like  indigo,  which  disappears 
on  applying  a  few  drops  of  linseed-oil  varnish  or  "  wax 
milk;"  and  the  zinc  has  then  a  deep  black  color  pnd  gloss, 


INDEX. 


Abyssinian  gold,  o. 

Accidents,  general  rules  in  case  of,  9. 

Acids,  stains  of,  to  remove,  130. 

Adhesive  paper,  101. 

Alabaster,  11,  108. 

to  work,  ii. 

to  polish,  ii. 

to  clean,  ii. 

cement  for,  12. 
Mbata,  composition  of,  13. 
Alcohol  for  making  varnish,  12. 

as  a  stimulant  in  cases  of  accident,  10. 
Alloy  for  filling  holes  in  cast  iron,  13. 

for  uniting  iron,  steel  and  brass,  13. 

general  rules  for  making,  12. 
Aluminium,  bronze,  13. 

silver,  13. 
Amalgam,  Boettger's,  13. 

copper,  13. 

for  silvering  globes,  etc.,  13. 

for  electrical  machines,  13. 

silver,  for  mirrors,  90. 
Amber,  working  and  polishing,  15. 

cement  for,  16. 
'  imitation,  16. 

solvents  for,  119. 
Aniline  inks,  67. 

stains,  to  remove,  130. 
Annealing  copper,  brass,  etc.,  16. 

steel,  133. 
Anti-attrition  lubricator,  90. 

rnetal.  Babbitt's,  14. 
Anti-friction  metals,  Belgian,  14. 

cheap,  14. 

Antique  bronze,  26. 
Antiseptic  preparations,  17. 
Aquarium  cement,  29. 
Armenian  cement,  29. 
Arsenic,  antidote  for,  in. 
Arsenical  soap,  17. 

powder,  1 7. 

Axle  grease,  Booth's,  90. 
Bibbitt  metal,  how  to  make  and  apply,  14. 
Balls  for  removing  grease,  131. 
Barometer  paper,  102. 
1'asketware,  varnish  for,  139. 
Batteries,  voltaic,  145. 

zincs  for,  146. 

connections  for,  145. 
Beeswax,  to  bleach,  17. 
Bolgian  antifriction  metals,  14. 
Belting,  learner,  cement  for,  35. 
Bengal  ji>;ht,  84, 


Blackboards,  to  make,  18. 

crayons  for,  40. 
Blazing  off  steel  springs,  134. 
Bleaching  by  means  of  sulphur,  137. 

ivory,  78. 

shellac,  122. 

skeleton  leaves,  84. 
Blue    color,   to    remove    from    iron  and 

steel,  76. 

Blue  light,  84,  86. 
Bluing  of  steel,  136. 
Booth's  axle  grease,  90. 
Boxes,  metal  for  lining,  14. 
Brass,  1 8.  _ 

to  finish,  19. 

to  color  and  varnish,  19. 

to  bronze,  19,  25. 

to  blacken,  20. 

to  whiten,  21. 

to  deposit  by  electricity,  21. 

to  coat  with  copper,  22. 

to  coat  with  silver,  126. 

to  clean,  22. 

to  lacquer,  22. 
Brazing,  22. 
Brightening  iron,  76. 
British  plate,  composition  of,  13 
Bronze,  aluminium,  13. 
Bronze  for  brass,  25. 

antique,  26,  105. 
Bronzing,  25. 
Bronzing  liquid,  26. 
Bronzing  wood,  leather,  paper,  etc.,  26. 
Browning  gun  barrels,  60. 
Brovvning  mixture  for  gun  barrels,  60. 
Buckland's  cement,  29. 
Buffing  metals,  etc.,  94,  95. 
Burnishing  metHls,  94. 
Burns,  cure  for,  27. 
Calcimine,  149. 
Canvas,  to  make  waterproof,  147. 

metallic  soap  for,  148. 
Cap  cement,  Faraday's,  31. 
Carmine  ink,   French  process  for   mak- 
ing, 67. 

Case-hardening  iron,  73. 
Casein  and  soluble  glass  cement,  30. 
Casein  Mucilage.  30. 
Cast  steel — see  steel. 
Catgut,  how  to  make,  27. 
Cats,  to  cure  skins  of,  129. 
Cement  for  alabaster,  12, 

aquarium,  29, 


160 


INDEX. 


Cement,  Armenian,  29. 
Buckland's,  29. 

cheese,  30. 

Chinese  (schio-15ao),  30. 

Faraday's  cap,  31. 

electrical,  31. 

for  glass,  earthenware,  etc.,  31. 

glass,  31. 

gutta  percha,  33. 

iron,  for  pipes,  etc.,  33. 

Japanese,  34. 
.  for  kerosene  oil  lamps,  34. 

labels,  34. 

for  uniting  leather  and  metal,  _  '. 

for  leather  belting,  35. 

litharge  and  glycerine,  35. 

for  attaching  metal  to  glass,  36. 

Paris,  for  shells,  etc.,  36. 

porcelain,  37. 

soft,  37. 

soluble  glass,  37. 

Sorel's,  38. 

Steam  boiler,  38. 

transparent,  38. 

turner's,  38. 

Wollaston's,  38. 

sulphur,  138. 

Cements,  general  rules  for  using,  28. 
Chalk  for  polishing,  in> 

prepared,  114. 
Chatham  light,  89. 
Cheese  cement,  30. 
Chinese  cement,  30. 

glue,  30. 

Chlorate  of  potassa,  caution,  87. 
Cleaning  engravings,  etc.,  105. 

glass,  57. 

glass  for  mirrors,  97. 

looking  glasses,  99. 

ivory,  78. 

marble,  91. 

silver,  125. 
Cliche"  metal,  15. 
Cloth,  to  make  waterproof,  147. 
Clothes  on  fire,  what  to  do,  48. 
Cock  metal    13. 

Coffee  as  a  stimulant  in   case  of   acci- 
dent, 10. 
Cold  process  for  zincing  iron,  75. 

tinning  iron,  75. 
Color  of  tempered  steel,  134. 
Connection-;  for  voltaic  batteries,  145. 
Copal,  solvents  for,  no. 
Copper,  38... 

amalgam,  how  to  make,  13. 
'•'    to  polish,  38. 

to  weld,  39. 
Coppering  iron  or  steel,  39. 


Coral,  artificial,  40. 
Cork,  to  cut,  40. 

to  make  airtight,  40. 
Corrosive  sublimate,  antidote  for,  112. 
Crayons,  for  blackboards,  40. 

to  preserve,  41. 
Creases,    to    take    out    of  engravings, 

etc.,  102. 

Crocus  martis,  for  polishing,  115. 
Curing  and  tanning  skins,  128. 
Curling  metal  surfaces,  41. 
Cuticle,  liquid,  41. 
Dammar,  solvents  for,  119. 
Demons,  tableaux  light  for,  86. 
Dials,  painting  hours  on,  101. 
Diamond  for  drilling  glass,  56. 
Disinfecting  by  sulphur  vapors,  137. 

by  pastils,  etc..  50. 
Drawing  paper,  size  for,  127. 

to  mount,  102. 

Dresses,  how  to  make  fire-proof,  48. 
Drilling  glass,  55. 
Dumoulin's  liquid  glue,  32. 

Ebony,  imitation,  156. 
Electrical  amalgam,  13. 

Boettger's,  13. 
Electrical  cement,  31. 
Electrum,  composition  of,  13. 
Elemi,  solvents  for,  119. 
Elutriation,  how  to  perform,  113. 
Engravings,  to  take  creases  out  of,  lot. 

to  take  water  stains  out  of,  105. 
Eraser  for  ink;  70. 
Etching  copper,  42. 

varnish  for,  42. 

acid  for,  42. 

steel,  liquid  for,  43. 

glass,  44. 
Eye,  accidents  to,  44. 

to  remove  particles  from,  45 

lime  in,  46. 

Faraday's  cap  cement,  31. 
Fire-proof  dresses,  48. 
Fire,  clothes  on,  48. 
Fires,  to  prevent,  46. 

what  to  do  in  case  of,  47. 
Fluxes  for  solders,  24. 
Fly  papers,  to  make,  49. 
Forging  iron,  72. 
French  polish,  152. 
Freezing  mixtures,  various  kinds,  50. 
Freezing,  to  prevent  ink  from,  69. 
Fruit  stains,  to  remove,  130. 
Fuller's  earth  for  scouring,  131. 
Fumigating   pastils,   how    to  make  juH 


use,  50, 
Furs,  skins,  curing,  128, 


INDEX, 


161 


Fusible  metals,  how  to  make  and  use,  15. 

Ghosts,  tableaux  light  for,  86. 

Gilded  ware,  cleaning,  80. 

Gilding  metals,  best  methods,  51.  • 

with  gold  leaf,  52. 

picture  frames,  52. 

Wood,  54. 

steel,  54. 
Glass,  soluble,  cement,  30. 

cement,  31. 

earthenware,  etc.,  cement  for,  31. 

working,  54. 

cutting,  54. 

cutting  without  a  diamond,  55. 

drilling,  55.      « 

how  to  turn  and  bore  in  a  lathe,  55. 

stoppers,  fitting,  56. 

stoppers,  to  remove,  when  tight,  56. 

to  powder,  57. 

ground,  to  imitate,  57. 

vessels,  to  cleanse,  57. 

paper,  103. 

paper,  waterproof,  103. 
Glassware,  to  pack,  59. 
Glue,  how  to  choose,  31. 

how  to  prepare,  32. 

Chinese,  30. 

liquid,  32. 

marine,  35. 
-mouth,  33. 
*  portable,  33. 

Gold,  Abyssinian,  9. 

gilding  with,  52. 

ink,  63. 

lacquer,  82. 

size,  preparation  of,  127. 
Grass,  dried,  to  stain,  59. 
Grease  stains,  to  remove,  130. 
Green  light,  85,  86. 
Ground  glass,  to  imitate,  57. 
Guns,  to  improve  the  shooting  of,  59. 

to  keep  barrels  from  rusting,  60. 

to  brown  the  barrels  of,  60. 

varnish  for  barrels,  61. 
Gutta  percha  cement,  33. 
Gypsum,  108. 

Handles  of  knives  to  fasten,  62. 

Hard  solder,  23. 

Hardening  copper,  brass,  etc.,  16. 

steel,  133. 

Heat  used  in  forging  iron,  72. 
Hygrometric  or  barometer  paper,  102. 

Indelible  aniline  ink,  68. 

Indian  ink,  68. 
Indestructible  ink,  69. 
Indian  ink,  how  to  choose,  63. 


Ink,  different  kinds  of,  62. 

rules  for  selecting  and  using,  63, 

black,  recipe  for,  66.  ^ 

Runge's  black  ink,  66. 

Hue  ink,  66. 

carmine  ink,  French  process,  67. 

red  ink,  67. 

aniline  inks,  general  formula,  67. 

aniline  ink,  violet,  67. 

aniline  ink,  blue,  67. 

aniline  inks,  aqueous  solutions,  67. 

gold,  68. 

silver,  68. 

marking  ink  for  linen,  63. 

indelible  aniline,  68. 

indelible  Indian,  68, 

indestructible,  69. 

that  will  not  freeze,  69. 

sympathetic  or  secret,  69. 

eraser,  70. 

pencils,  106. 

stains,  to  remove  from  silver,  125. 

stains,  to  remove,  131. 
Inks  for  rubber  stamps  and  stencils,  70. 
Inlaying,  simple  method  of,  71. 

imitation,  71. 
Iron  cement  for  joints,  33. 

forging,    different    heats     employed 
for,  72. 

welding,  72. 

case  hardening,  73. 

rust,  to  prevent,  74. 

zincing.  74. 

cold  process  for  zincing,  75. 

tinning,  75. 

tinning  in  the  cold,  75. 

brightening,  76. 

to  remove  blue  color  from,  76. 

mould,  to  remove,  131. 

and  tin,  alloys  of,  139. 
Ivory,  character  "of  as  regards  work,  76. 

working     and     polishing,     methods 
for,  77. 

bleaching  and  cleaning,  78. 
Ivy,  poisoning  with,  remedy,  113. 

Japanese  cement,  34. 
Javelle  water,  79. 
Jewelry,  cleaning,  80. 

Kalsomine,  149. 

Kerosene  oil  lamps,  cement  for,  34. 

Labels,  cement  for,  34. 

Lac,  different  kinds  of,  121. 

Lacquer,  method  of  using,  81- 

deep  gold,  82. 

bright  gold,  82. 

pale  gold,  82. 

u«ed  by  A.  Ross,  82, 


INDEX. 


Lacquer,  preservation  of,  83. 

Laundry  gloss,  83. 

Leather  belting,  cement  for,  35. 

Leather  and  metai,  cement  for,  35, 

Leather,  to  make  waterproof,  147. 

Leaves,  skeleton,  83. 

Lights,  signal  and  colored,  84. 

Bengal,  84. 

blue,  84,  86. 

red,  85,  86. 

white,  85.'  86. 

crimson  fire,  85. 

green,  85,  86. 

for  indoor  illumination,  85. 

phosphorous,  88. 

photographic,  88. 

Chatham,  89. 

Litharge  and  glycerine  cement,  35. 
Looking  glasses,  care  of,  99. 

how  to  clean,  99, 
Lubricators,  rules  for  selecting,  89. 

plumbago,  90. 

anti-attrition,  90. 

fine  lubricating  oil,  90. 

Booth's  axle  grease,  90. 
Magnesium  light,  85. 
Mahogany,  to  improve,  155. 

artificial,  155. 
Maple,  to  whiten,  155. 
Maps,  varnish  for,  141. 
Marble,  composition  of,  90. 

method  of  working,  91. 

method  of  polishing,  92. 

substances  wlach  injure  it,  91. 

to  clean,  91. 

sculpture,  how  finished,  93. 
Marine  glue,  35. 
Marking  ink,  68. 
Mastic,  solvents  for,  119. 
Mats,  skins  cured  for,  128. 
Mercury,    bichloride    or    corrosive    sub- 
limate, 112. 
Metal,  fusible,  15. 

anti-friction,  14. 

Babbitt,  14. 

Metal,  to  attach  to  glass,  36. 
Metallic  soap  for  canvas,  148. 
Metals,  to  polish,  94,  95,  96. 
Metals,  bright,  painting,  101. 
Mexican  onyx,  90. 
Mildew,  to  remove,  131. 
Mirrors,  to  make,  96. 

for  optical  purposes,  96. 
silver  amalgam  for,  98. 
care  of,  99. 

Mono-chromatic  light,  86. 
Moulds  made  of  sulphur,  138. 
.  Mouth  glue,  33. 


Mucilage,  casein,  30. 
Murderers,  tableaux,  light  for,  86. 
Newton's  fusible  metal,  15. 
Nickel,  characters  of,  99. 

to  deposit  without  battery,  too. 
Noise,  prevention  of,   100. 
Novargent,  m6. 

Oak,  to  stain,  157. 
to  darken,  157. 
Oil,  fine,  for  lubricating,  90. 
Oilstone  powder  for  polishing,  116. 
Onion's  fusible  metal,  15. 
Opium  poisoning,  remedy  for,  n3. 
Oriental  alabaster,  1 1. 
Oxidized  silver,  123. 

Paint,  to  remove  stains  of,  132. 
Painting  bright  metals,  101. 
Painting  metal  dials,  101. 
Paper,  various  uses  of,  101. 

adhesive,  101. 

barometer,  102. 

creases,  to  take  out  of,  102. 

drawing,  to  mount,  102. 

glass  paper,  103. 

to  prepare  for  varnishing,  103. 

pollen  powder  or  paper  powder,  104. 

tracing,   104. 

transfer,  104. 

to  remove  water  stains  from,  '05. 

waxed,  105. 

for  pillows,  107. 

size  for,  127. 

Paris  cement  for  shells,  etc.,  36 
Paris  green,  antidote  for,  in. 
Paste,  recipes  tor,  36. 
Pastils,  fumigating,  50. 
Patina  or  artificial  bronze,  105. 
Patterns,  to  trace,  105. 
Pencil  marks,  to  fix,  106. 
Pencils,  ink,  to  make,  106. 
Peroxide  of  irt-n  for  polishing,  116. 
Pewter,  15,  107. 

hardened,  107. 

for  caps  and  polishing  tools,  107. 
Phosphorous  light,  88. 
Phosphorous  as  poison,  antidote,  112. 
Photographic  light,  88. 
Pillows  for  sick  room,  107. 
Plaster-of-Paris,  preparation  of,  108. 

to  harden,  108. 

to  cast,  ic8. 
Plate  renovator,  126. 
Plating  without  battery,  126. 

nickel,  100. 

Platinum,  solder  for,  25. 
Plumbago  as  a  lubricator,  90. 
Poisons,  cautions  in  regard  to,  109, 


163 


Poisons,  acids,  no. 

oxalic  acid,  no. 

Prussic  acid,  in. 

arsenic  or  Paris  green,  in. 

corrosive  sublimate,  112. 

phosphorous,  112. 

opium,  112. 

strychnine,  113. 

ivy  poisoning,  113.' 

stings,  113. 
Polishing  smoothing  irons,  83. 

metals,  94. 

powders,  selection  of,  113. 

elutriation  of,  113. 

chalk  or  whiting,  114. 

prepared  chalk,  114. 

crocus  or  rouge,  115. 

Andrew    Ross's    mode    of    prepar- 
ing, 115- 

oilstone  powder,  116. 

pumice-stone  powder,  116. 

putty  powder,  117. 

Vienna  lime,  118. 
Polishing  powder,  Lord  Ross's  mode  of 

preparing,  116. 
Polishing  powders,  oilstone  powder,  116. 

pumice-stone  powder,  117. 

putty  powder,  117. 

Vienna  lime,  118. 
Polishing-wood,  151. 

in  the  lathe,  153. 
Pollen  powder  or  paper,  104. 
Porcelain  cement,  37. 
Powders,  polishing,  113. 
Printing  in  gold,  silver  and  bronze,  52. 
Prussic  acid,  antidote  for,  in. 
Pumice-stone  powder,  117. 
Putty  powder  for  polishing,  117. 
Queen's  metal,  composition  of,  15. 
Rabbits,  to  cuie  skins  of,  129. 
Red  ink,  67. 
Red  light,  85,  86. 
Resins,  characters  of,  119. 
Rosewood,  imitation,  157. 
Ross,  Andrew,  lacquer  used  by,  82. 

method  of  preparing  rouge  for  polish- 
ing, 115. 

method   of    preparing    putty    pow- 
der, 118. 
Ross,  Lord,  method  of  preparing  rouge 

for  polishing,  116 
Rouge  for  polishing.  115. 
Rust  and  corrosion  of  iron,  to  prevent,  74. 

Sailcloth,  to  make  impervious  to  water,  147. 
Sandarach,  solvents  for,  119. 
Saws,  how  to  put  in  order,  120. 
Saws,  tempering,  135. 


Secret  writing,  ink  for,  69. 

Seed  lac,  121 

Sheep  skins  for  mats,  curing  of,  128. 

Shelkc,  character  of,  121. 

adulteration  of,  lax. 

solvents  for,  119,  121. 

clarifying  solutions  of,  122. 

bleaching,  122. 

varnish,  142. 

Sieves,  very  fine,  to  make,  121 
Silver,  aluminium,  13. 

characters  of,  122. 

for  solder,  23. 

ink,  68. 

amalgam  for  mirrors,  9^. 

how  hardened,  122. 

oxidized,  123. 

to  clean,  125, 

to  imitate  old,  124. 

to  remove  ink  stains  from,  125. 

to  dissolve  off  plated  ware,  125. 

to  work  and  polish,  122. 

nitrate,  to  remove  stains  of,  13*. 
Silvering  mirrors,  amalgam  for,  06. 

inside  of  globes,  etc.,  13. 

leather,  etc.,  126. 

powder,  126. 

solution,  127. 

amalgam  for  metals,  127. 
Silversmiths'  work,  how  finished,  12* 
Size,  glue,  how  to  make,  127. 

for  window  shades,  129. 

for  drawing  paper,  127, 

gold,  127. 

Sizing  for  window  shades,  127. 
Skeleton  leaves,  83, 
Skins,  tanning  and  curing,  128. 
Skins,  sheep,  curing  for  mats,  128. 

of  rabbits,  cats,  etc.,  to  cure,  129. 
Soft  cement,  37. 
Solder,  soft,  composition  of,  23. 

hard,  how  to  make,  24. 

flux  for,  24. 

wire,  24. 

for  platinum,  25. 

German  silver.  25. 
Soldering,  22. 
Soldering  fluid,  23. 
Soluble  glass  cement,  37. 
Sorel's  cement,  38. 
Speculum  metal,  how  to  make,  15. 
Spirituous  liquors  as  a  stimulant,  10. 
Spotted  varnish,  to  restore,  145. 
Springs,  to  temper,  135. 
Staining  wood,  154. 
Stains,  how  removed,  129. 

acids,  129. 

aniline  dyes,  130. 


164 


INDEX. 


Stains,  fruit,  130. 

grease,  130. 

ink  and  iron  mould,  131. 

mildew,  131. 

nitrate  of  silver,  132. 

paint,  132. 

tar,  132. 

Stamps,  ink  for,  70. 
Steam  boiler  cement,  38. 
Steel,  forging,   132. 

burnt,  to  restore,  133. 

to  gild,  54. 

to  harden,  133. 

to  temper,  134. 

blazing  off,  134. 

welding,  136. 

to  blue,  136. 

springs,  to  temper,  135. 
Stencils,  ink  for,  70. 
Stick  lac,  121. 

Stimulants  use  of  in  case  of  accident,  10. 
Stings  of  insects,  remedy  for,  113. 
Stoppers,  glass,  to  fit,  56. 

to  remove  tight,  56. 

Strychnine  as  a  poison,  antidote  for,  13. 
Sulphur,  137. 

bleaching  by  means  of,  137. 

disinfecting  by  means  of,  137. 

as  a  cement,  138. 

for  making  moulds,  138. 
Sympathetic  ink,  69. 
Tanning  and  curing  skins,  128. 
Tar,  to  remove  stains  of,  132. 
Tempering  steel  on  one  edge,  134. 

steel,  color  indications,  134. 

steel  springs,  135. 

steel  saws,  135. 
Tin,  138. 

how  corroded,  138. 

alloys  of,  138. 

and  iron,  139. 
Tinning  iron,  75. 
Tracing  paper,  104. 
Transfer  paper,  104. 
Transparent  cement  for  glass,  38. 
Turner's  cement,  38 
Tutty  powder  or  putty  powder,  117 
Type  metal,  15. 
Varnish,  139. 

for  browned  iron,  61. 

for  basket  ware,  139. 

black,  for  optical  work,  140. 

black,  for  cast  iron,  140. 

green,  140. 

for  bright  iron  work,  141. 

for  maps,  141. 

mastic,  141. 


Varnish  for  bright  metals,  141. 

for  paintings,  141. 

for  preventing  rust,  142. 

shellac,  142. 

tortoise  shell,  Japan,  142. 

turpentine,  142. 

for  violins  and  simitar  articles,  142. 

for  replacing  turpentine  and  linseed 
oil  paints,  14'. 

white,  hard,  for  wood  or  metal,  143. 

white,  for  paper,  143. 

white  spirit,  143. 

Parisian,  for  wood,  143. 

for  stained  wood,  143. 

to  restore  spotted,  145. 

black,  for  zinc,  158. 
Varnishing  paper,  103. 

directions  lor,  144. 
Vienna  lime  for  polishing,  118. 
Violins,  varnish  for,  142. 
Voltaic  batteries,  145. 

zincs  for,  146. 

Walnut,  black,  to  imitate,  156. 
Washing  glass  vessels,  58. 
Watch,  care  of,  146. 
Waterproof  glass  paper,  103. 
Waterproofing,  methods  used  for,  147. 

for  leather,  147. 

for  canvas,  147. 

for  sailcloth,  147. 

ordinary  goods,  148. 

Water    stains,  to    remove    from    engra- 
vings, 105. 

Wax  for  polishing  floors,  151. 
Waxed  paper,  105. 

Weather  paper  or  barometer  paper,  102. 
Welding  copper,  39. 

iron,  72. 

steel,  136. 

Whiting  for  polishing,  114. 
White  light,  85,  86,  87. 
Whitewash,  Treasury  Department  recipe 

for,  149. 

Whitewash,  to  "kill,"  150. 
Window  shades,  sizing  for,  127. 
Wollaston's  white  cement,  38. 
Wood's  fusible  metal,  15. 
Wood  floors,  151. 

polishing,  151. 

staining,  154. 

Zinc,  characters  of,  158. 

to  pulverize,  158. 

black  varnish  for,  158. 
Zincing  iron,  74. 

iron  by  cold  process,  75. 
Zincs  for  batteries,  amalgamating,  146 


A    NEW    SERIES    OF   PRACTICAL    JZOOKfe* 

WORK  MANUALS. 

The  intention  of  the  publishers  is  to  give  in  this  Series  a  number  of  small  books  which 
will  give  Thorough  and  Reliable  Infermationin  the  plainest  possible  language,  upon  the 
ARTS    OF    EVEPfcYJJA.Y    LIFE. 

Each  volume  will  be  by  some  one  who  is  not  only  practically  familiar  with  his  subject, 
but  who  has  the  ability  to  make  it  clear  to  others.  The  volumes  will  each  contain  from 
50  to  75  pages ,  will  be  neatly  and  clearly  printed  on  good  paper  and  bound  in  tough 
and  durable  binding.  The  price  will  be  25  cents  each,  or  fiiie  for  One  Dollar. 

The  following  are  the  titles  of  the  volumes  already  issued.  <  Hhers  will  follow  at 
short  intervals. 

I.  Cements  and  Glue. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Preparation  and  Use  of  All  Kinds  of  Cements,  Glue 
and   Paste.     By  JOHN    PHIN,  Editor  of  the   Young'  Scientist  and  the  A  menca*> 
Journal  of  Microscopy 
Every  mechanic  and  householder  will  find  this  volume  ot  almost  everyday  use.     It 

contains  nearly  200  recipes  for  the  preparation  of  Cements  for  aXriost  every  conceivable 

purpose 

II.  The  Slide  Rule,  and   How  to  Use  It. 

This  is  a  compilation  of  Explanations,  Rules  and  Instructions  suitable  for  mechanics 
and  «*hers  interested  in  the  industrial  arts.  "Rules  are  given  for  the  measurement  of 
all  kinds  of  boards  and  planks,  timber  n  the  round  or  square,  glaziers'  work  and  paint- 
ing, brickwork,  paviors*  work,  tiling  and  slating,  the  measurement  of  vessels  oi  various 
shapes,  the  wedge,  inclined  planes,  wheels  and  «ftxles,  levers,  the  weighing  and  meas- 
urement of  mejTtlK  and  all  solid  bodies,  cylinders,  cones,  globes,  o<  tagon  rules  and 
formula;,  the  measurement  of  circles,  and  a  comparison  of  French  and  Fn.^lish  measures, 
with  much  other  information,  useful  to  builders,  carpenters,  brickbyers,  glaziers, 
paviors,  slaters,  machinists  arid  other  mechanics. 

Possessed  of  this  little  Book  and  a  good  Slide  Rule,  mechanics  mi^ht  carry  in  their 
pockets  some  hundreds  ot  times  the  po.ver  of  calculation  that  they  now  have  in  the- 
heads,  and  the  use  of  the  instrument  is  very  easily  acquired 

III.  Hints  for  Painters,  Decorators  and  I'aperlianjjers. 

Being  a  selection  of  Useful  Rules,  Data,  Memoranda,  Meth  ds  and  Suggestions 
for  House,  Ship,  and  Furniture  i'ai.  ting,  l'aper!«anging,  Gliding,  Color  Mixing, 
and  other  matters  Useful  and  In-trucme  to  Painters  and  Dcconrors.  Prepared 
with  Special  Reference  tj  the  W  nts  of  Amateurs.  By  an  Old  Hand. 

IV.  Construction,  Use  and  Care  of  Drawing  Instruments. 

Being  a 'Treatise  on  Draughting  Instruments,  with  Rules  for  their  Use  and  Care, 
Explanations  of  Scale;,  Sectors  and  Protractors.  Together  with  Memoranda  for 
Draughtsmen,  Hints  on  Purchasing  Paper,  Ink,  Instruments,  Pencils,  etc.  Also  a 
Price  List  of  all  materials  required  by  Draughtsmen.  Illustrated  with  twenty-four 
Explanatory  Illustrations.  By  FKED.  T.  HODGSON. 

V.  The  Steel  Square. 

Some  Difficult  Problems  in  Carpentry  and  Joinery  Simplified  and  Solved  by  the 
aid  of  the  Carpenters'  Steel  Square,  together  with  a  Full  Description  of  the  Tool, 
and  Explanations  of  the  Scales,  Lines  and  Figures  on  the  Blade  and  Tongue,  and 
How  to  LJ.se  them  in  Everyday  Work.  Showing  how  the  Square  may  be  Used 
in  Obtaining  the  Lengths  and  Bevels  of  Rafters,  Hips,  ( Jroins,  Braces,  Brackets, 
Purlins,  Collar- Beams,  and  Jack-Rafteis.  Also,  its  Application  in  Obtaining 
the  Bevels  and  Cuts  for  Hnppers,  Spring  Mouldings,  Octagons,  Diminished 
Styles,  etc.,  etc.  Illustrated  by  Numerous  Wood-cu  s  By  FKED.  T.  HODGSON, 
Author  of  the  '  Carpenters' Stce  Square." 

Note. — This  work  is  intended  iis  an  elementary  introduction  for  the  u->eof  those  who 
have  not  time  to  study  Mr.  Hodgson's  larger  work  on  the  same  subject. 


THE     WORKSHOP     COMPANION. 

PART   II. 

A  Collection  of  Useful  and  Reliable  Recipes,  Rules,  Processes, 
Method*,  Wrinkles,  and  Practical  Hints,  for  the  House- 
hold ami  the  Shop.— Pnpei%  25  cents;  cloth.  60  cents. 

This  is  an  extension  of  the  First  Part,  and  contains  subjects  which  have 
not  been  discussed  in  the  earlier  volume.  These  two  volumes  are  not  a 
mere  collection  of  newspaper  clippings,  like  most  of  the  books  of  "Recipes." 
but  a  series  of  thorough  articles  on  practical  matters  in  regard  to  which 
information  is  constantly  desired  in  the  shop,  the  house,  and  on  the  farm. 

The  two  parts  are  also  issued  in  one  volume,  printed  on  extra  paper,  and 
handsomely  bound  in  cloth,  under  the  title  of  THE  PRACTICAL  ASSISTANT. 
Price  $1. 


THE  STEEL  SQUARE  AND  ITS  USES.— By  FRED.  T. 
1  IODGSON*.—  Third  edition,  enhirged  and  improved,  with 
100  engravings.  — Just  issued.— Cloth $!.('() 

The  most  valuable,  practical,  and  simple  work  for  mechanics  ever  pub- 
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STEEL  SQUARES  AND  THEIR  USES.— Being  a  De- 
scription of  the  various  Steel  Squares  ;md  Their  Uses  in 
Solving  a  large  number  of  Mechanical  Problems  in  Con- 
structive Carpentry,  Joinery,  Sheet-metal  Work,  Cut-Stone 
and  Brick  Work.  Also  showing  how  many  geometrical 
and  other  problems  may  be  solved  by  the  use  of  the  steel 
square. —  By  FI:KI>.  T.  HODGSON,  editor  of  "The  Builder 
and  Woodworker." — Finely  illustrated. —  Cloth.  .  $l.(i: 

This  forms  Part  II  of  "The  Steel  Square  and  Its  Uses."  It  gives  new 
problems,  new  methods,  and  new  wrinkles  for  shortening  work. 

With  these  two  volumes  in  his  possession  the  workman  is  prepared  « 
lay  out  anj7  piece  of  work  more  easily,  quickly,  and  accurately  than  it  <  ;.u 
be  done  by  any  other  method. 


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SUCCESS     WITH     RECIPES. 
A  Practical  Guide  to  Success  in  the  use  of  Re- 
cipes, Formulae,  &c. —  With  Hints  on  Chemical   and 
Mechanical   Manipulation. —  Intended  as  a  Supplement  to 
all  Books  <»f  Reeipes.— By  J»HN  PHIN.— Paper,  25  cents. 

While  it  is  an  undoubted  fact  that  in  vny  of  the  recipes  published  in  the 
ordinary  collections  are  erroneous,  eitl  er  froir.  original  blunders  on  the 
parr  of  the  authors  or  from  mistakes  in 


frequently  arises  from  defective  inforn 
part  of   I  hose  who  attempt   to  put-  the 


opying.  failure  in  the  use  of  others 


at  ion  and  vicious  methods  on  the 
n  in   practice.     The  object  of  the 


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tended for  sale  ii  nives  special  Mid  valuable  advice  in  regard  to  the  best 
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ELECTRICIANS'    POCKET    COMPANION. 
Electrical    Rulas,   Tables,   Tests,    and    Formulae. 

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IVactii-al   Me- hods  of   Electrical    Measurements. 
Electric   t'onductors:   Copper.  &c. —  Insulators:  Guttapercha,  &c. 
Submarine  (--ibb's.  — Aerial   Land-lines. 
Electric   Lighting,  and   Transmission   of  Power. 


COMMON    SSNSE    IN   THE    POULTRY-YARD. 
A  Full  Account  of  1,OOO  Hens,  and  what  they  did. 

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Tho  most  thoroughly  practical   book  on  poultry  in  market. 


SHOOTING     ON     THE     WING. 

Plain   Directions    for  Acquiring   this  Art.— With 

several  Valuable   and   hitherto    Secret   Recipes    of  Gr<  at 

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NEW    DESIGNS 


FOE 


Eret  or  Scroll  Sawyers, 


MR.  F.  T.  HODGSON,  whose  admirable  series  of  articles  on  the  USE  OF  THE 
SCROLL  SAW  are  now  in  course  of  publication  in  the  YOUNG  SCIENTIST,  has  pre- 
pared for  us  a  series  of 

SEVENXEEN     I>ESI€J]\S, 
of  which  the  following  is  a  list : 

No.  i. — This  shows  one  side,  back,  and  bottom,  of  a  pen  rack.  It  may  be  made 
of  ebony,  walnut,  or  other  dark  wood. 

No.  2.— Design  for  inlaying  drawer  fronts,  table  tops,  box  lids,  and  many  other 
things.  It  is  a  sumach  leaf  pattern. 

No.  3. — Design  for  a  thermometer  stand.  It  may  be  made  of  any  hard  wood  or 
alabaster.  The  method  of  putting  together  is  obvious. 

No.  4.— This  shows  a  design  for  a  lamp  screen.  The  open  part  may  be  covered 
with  tinted  silk,  or  other  suitable  material,  with  some  appropriate  device  worked  on 
with  the  needle,  or,  if  preferred,  ornaments  may  be  painted  on  the  silk,  etc. 

No.  5. — A  case  for  containing  visiting  cards.       Will  look  best  made  of  white  holly. 

No.  6. — A  placque  stand,     it  may  be  made  of  any  kind  of  dark  01  medium  wood. 

No.  7. — A  design  for  ornaments  suitable  for  a  window  cornire.  It  should  be 
made  of  black  walnut,  and  overlaid  on  some  light  colored  hard  wood. 

No.  8 — A  design  for  a  jewel  ca.sket.  This  will  he  very  pretty  made  of  white  holly 
and  lined  with  blue  velvet  It  also  looks  well  made  of  ebony  lined  with  crimson. 

No.  9. — Frame.        Will  look  well  made  of  any  dark  wood. 

No.  10. — Frame.  Intended  to  be  made  in  pairs.  Looks  well  made  of  white  holly, 
with  leaves  and  flowers  painted  on  wide  stile. 

No.  n. — Horseshoe.  Can  be  made  of  any  kind  of  wood  and  used  for  a  pen  rack. 
When  decorated  with  gold  and  colors,  looks  very  handsome. 

No.  12. — Design  for  a  hinge  strap.  If  made  of  black  walnut,  and  planted  on  a 
white  or  oaken  door,  will  look  well. 

No.  13. — Design  for  a  napkin  ring.     May  be  made  of  any  kind  of  hard  wood. 

No.  14. — Hinge  strap  for  doors  with  narrow  stiles. 

No.  15. — Centre    ornament  for  panel. 

No.  16. — Corner  ornament  for  panel. 

No.  17. — Key-hole  escutcheon. 

These  designs  we  have  had  photo-lithographed  and  printed  on  good  paper,  so  that 
the  outlines  are  sharp,  and  the  opposite  sides  of  each  design  symmetrical.  Common 
designs  are  printed  from  coarse  wooden  blocks,  and  are  rough  and  unequal,  so  that 
it  is  often  impossible  to  make  good  work  from  them. 

The  series  embraces  over  forty  different  pieces,  and  designs  of  equal  quality  cannot 
be  had  for  less  than  five,  ten  or  fifteen  cents  each.  We  offer  them  for  twenty-five 
Cents  for  the  set,  which  is  an  average  price  of  only  one  cent  and  a  half  each. 

Mailed  to  any  address  on  receipt  of  price. 


14  DAY  USE 

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